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20世纪的全球冲突,约1914年至今

AP 欧洲历史 · 第 8 主题

训练
讲义 词汇表
8.1

20世纪全球冲突的时代背景
大纲

8.1 Contextualizing 20th-Century Global Conflicts

Learning ObjectivePreview: Unit 8 Key Concepts

Unit 8.A
Explain the context in which global conflict developed in the 20th century.

  • KC-4.1 Total war and political instability in the first half of the 20th century gave way to a polarized state order during the Cold War and eventually to efforts at transnational union.
    • KC-4.1.I World War I, caused by a complex interaction of long- and short-term factors, resulted in immense losses and disruptions for both victors and vanquished.
    • KC-4.1.II The conflicting goals of the peace negotiators in Paris pitted diplomatic idealism against the desire to punish Germany, producing a settlement that satisfied few.
    • KC-4.1.III In the interwar period, fascism, extreme nationalism, racist ideologies, and the failure of appeasement resulted in the catastrophe of World War II, presenting a grave challenge to European civilization.
  • KC-4.2 The stresses of economic collapse and total war engendered internal conflicts within European states and created conflicting conceptions of the relationship between the individual and the state, as demonstrated in the ideological battle between and among democracy, communism, and fascism.
  • KC-4.3 During the 20th century, diverse intellectual and cultural movements questioned the existence of objective knowledge, the ability of reason to arrive at truth, and the role of religion in determining moral standards.
    • KC-4.3.II Science and technology yielded impressive material benefits but also caused immense destruction and posed challenges to objective knowledge.
  • KC-4.4 Demographic changes, economic growth, total war, disruptions of traditional social patterns, and competing definitions of freedom and justice altered the experiences of everyday life.
    • KC-4.4.I The 20th century was characterized by large-scale suffering brought on by warfare and genocide, but also by tremendous improvements in the standard of living.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

第八单元把约 1914 年至今作为一部冲突史来讲述,由四项核心概念构成框架:

  • 二十世纪上半叶的总体战与政治不稳定,让位于冷战时期的两极化国家秩序。
  • 经济崩溃与总体战的压力在欧洲各国内部造成了内部冲突,并产生了关于个人与国家的关系(relationship between the individual and the state)的相互冲突的构想。
  • 多种思想与文化运动质疑客观知识的存在,以及建立于其上的权威。
  • 人口变化、经济增长、总体战,以及关于自由与正义的相互竞争的界定,改变了日常生活的经验。
8.2

第一次世界大战
大纲

8.2 World War I

Thematic FocusLearning ObjectiveHistorical Developments

TSI
Technological and Scientific Innovation — Scientific and technological innovations have increased efficiency, improved daily life, and shaped human development and interactions, having both intended and unintended consequences.

Unit 8.B
Explain the causes and effects of World War I.

  • KC-4.1.I World War I, caused by a complex interaction of long- and short-term factors, resulted in immense losses and disruptions for both victors and vanquished.
    • KC-4.1.I.A A variety of factors—including nationalism, military plans, the alliance system, and imperial competition—turned a regional dispute in the Balkans into World War I.

Unit 8.C
Explain how new technology altered the conduct of World War I. THEMATIC FOCUS Interaction of Europe and the World INT Motivated by a variety of factors, Europe’s interaction with the world led to political, economic, social, and cultural exchanges that influenced both European and non-European societies. LEARNING OBJECTIVE

  • KC-4.1.I.B New technologies confounded traditional military strategies and led to trench warfare and massive troop losses. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS

Unit 8.D
Explain how the developments of World War I changed political and diplomatic interactions between and among nations.

  • KC-4.1.I.C The effects of military stalemate, national mobilization, and total war led to protest and insurrection in the belligerent nations and eventually to revolutions that changed the international balance of power.
  • KC-4.1.I.D The war in Europe quickly spread to non-European theaters, transforming the war into a global conflict.
  • KC-4.1.I.E The relationship of Europe to the world shifted significantly with the globalization of the conflict, the emergence of the United States as a world power, and the overthrow of European empires.

Illustrative examples:

  • New technologies: §Bullet Machine gun §Bullet Barbed wire §Bullet Submarine §Bullet Airplane §Bullet Poison gas §Bullet Tank Discontent and revolution: §Bullet Mutinies in armies §Bullet Easter Rebellion in Ireland §Bullet Russian Revolution Non-European theaters of conflict: §Bullet Armenian Genocide §Bullet Arab revolt against the Turks §Bullet Japanese aggression in the Pacific and on the Chinese mainland Collapse of European empires: §Bullet Mandate system §Bullet Creation of modern Turkey §Bullet Dissolution of Austro-Hungarian Empire

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

这场战争由长期与短期因素的复杂互动所致,造成了巨大的损失与破坏。CED 的具体论断是:

  • 新技术使传统军事战略失效,导致堑壕战(trench warfare)与巨大的兵员损失。
  • 军事僵局、全民动员与总体战的后果,在各交战国引发了抗议与起义(protest and insurrection)——战争转而作用于进行战争的社会本身。
  • 战争迅速蔓延至非欧洲战场,成为一场全球冲突。
  • 随着这一全球化以及新兴强国的出现,欧洲与世界的关系发生了显著转变。
词汇表 训练
英文 中文 拼音
conflicting conceptions of the relationship between the individual and the state 个人与国家的关系 gè rén yǔ guó jiā de guān xì
trench warfare 堑壕战 qiàn háo zhàn
protest and insurrection 抗议与起义 kàng yì yǔ qǐ yì
8.3

俄国革命及其影响
大纲

8.3 The Russian Revolution and Its Effects

Thematic FocusLearning ObjectiveHistorical Developments

SOP
States and Other Institutions of Power — European states and nations developed governmental and civil institutions from 1450 to the present to organize society and consolidate political power, with a variety of social, cultural, and economic effects.

Unit 8.E
Explain the causes and effects of the Russian Revolution.

  • KC-4.2.I The Russian Revolution created a regime based on Marxist–Leninist theory.
    • KC-4.2.I.A In Russia, World War I exacerbated long-term problems of political stagnation, social inequality, incomplete industrialization, and food and land distribution, all while creating support for revolutionary change.
    • KC-4.2.I.B Military and worker insurrections, aided by the revived Soviets, undermined the Provisional Government and set the stage for Lenin’s long-planned Bolshevik Revolution and establishment of a communist state.
    • KC-4.2.I.C The Bolshevik takeover prompted a protracted civil war between communist forces and their opponents, who were aided by foreign powers.
    • KC-4.2.I.D.i In order to improve economic performance, Lenin compromised communist principles and employed some free-market principles under the New Economic Policy.

Illustrative examples:

  • Revolutionary change in Russia:
    • February/March Revolution
    • Petrograd Soviet

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

俄国革命(Russian Revolution)创立了一个以马克思列宁主义(Marxist-Leninist theory)为基础的政权——这是第一个明确建立在该纲领之上的国家,这正是它成为转折点而非一国事件的原因。

词汇表 训练
英文 中文 拼音
Russian Revolution 俄国革命 é guó gé mìng
Marxist-Leninist theory 马克思列宁主义 mǎ kè sī liè níng zhǔ yì
diplomatic idealism against the desire to punish Germany 理想主义与惩罚德国的意愿 lǐ xiǎng zhǔ yì yǔ chéng fá dé guó de yì yuàn
8.4

凡尔赛会议与和平安排
大纲

8.4 Versailles Conference and Peace Settlement

Thematic FocusLearning ObjectiveHistorical Developments

SOP
States and Other Institutions of Power — European states and nations developed governmental and civil institutions from 1450 to the present to organize society and consolidate political power, with a variety of social, cultural, and economic effects.

Unit 8.F
Explain how and why the settlement of World War I failed to effectively resolve the political, economic, and diplomatic challenges of the early 20th century.

  • KC-4.1.II The conflicting goals of the peace negotiators in Paris pitted diplomatic idealism against the desire to punish Germany, producing a settlement that satisfied few.
    • KC-4.1.II.A Wilsonian idealism clashed with postwar realities in both the victorious and the defeated states. Democratic successor states emerged from former empires and eventually succumbed to significant political, economic, and diplomatic crises.
    • KC-4.1.II.B The League of Nations, created to prevent future wars, was weakened from the outset by the nonparticipation of major powers, including the U.S., Germany, and the Soviet Union.
    • KC-4.1.II.C The Versailles settlement, particularly its provisions on the assignment of guilt and reparations for the war, hindered the German Weimar Republic’s ability to establish a stable and legitimate political and economic system.
  • KC-4.1.VI.B The League of Nations distributed former German and Ottoman possessions to France and Great Britain through the mandate system, thereby altering the imperial balance of power and creating a strategic interest in the Middle East and its oil.

Illustrative examples:

  • Democratic successor states:
    • Poland §Bullet Czechoslovakia §Bullet Hungary
    • Yugoslavia
  • Mandate territories:
    • Lebanon and Syria
    • Iraq
    • Palestine

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

本单元赖以建立的链条——每一环都是一项独立可考的论断
题目问的是其中一环;最有力的答案会显示这一环在链条中的位置

巴黎和会上谈判者相互冲突的目标,使外交理想主义与惩罚德国的意愿(idealism against the desire to punish Germany)相互对立,由此形成的和约两个目标都未能充分实现。

国际联盟(League of Nations)通过委任统治(mandate system)把原德国与奥斯曼的属地分配给法国与英国,这实际上是以新名义延续帝国控制——这一点值得写出,因为它把和约与课程后面的去殖民化连接了起来。

词汇表 训练
英文 中文 拼音
League of Nations 国际联盟 guó jì lián méng
mandate system 委任统治 wěi rèn tǒng zhì
8.5

全球经济危机
大纲

8.5 Global Economic Crisis

Thematic FocusLearning ObjectiveHistorical Developments

ECD
Economic and Commercial Developments — Economic development, especially the development of capitalism, played an important role in Europe’s history, often having significant social, political, and cultural effects.

Unit 8.G
Explain the causes and effects of the global economic crisis in the 1920s and 1930s.

  • KC-4.2.III The Great Depression, caused by weaknesses in international trade and monetary theories and practices, undermined Western European democracies and fomented radical political responses throughout Europe.
    • KC-4.2.III.A World War I debt, nationalistic tariff policies, overproduction, depreciated currencies, disrupted trade patterns, and speculation created weaknesses in economies worldwide.
    • KC-4.2.III.B Dependence on post-World War I American investment capital led to financial collapse when, following the 1929 stock market crash, the United States cut off capital flows to Europe.
    • KC-4.2.III.C Despite attempts to rethink economic theories and policies and forge political alliances, Western democracies failed to overcome the Great Depression and were weakened by extremist movements.

Illustrative examples:

  • New economic theories and policies:
    • Keynesianism in Britain
    • Cooperative social action in Scandinavia
    • Popular Front policies in France
  • Political alliance:
    • National government in Britain
    • Popular Fronts in France and Spain

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

由国际贸易以及货币理论与实践中的弱点所致的大萧条(Great Depression),削弱了西欧民主国家(undermined Western European democracies),并在全欧洲催生了激进的政治回应。

这是本单元的枢纽。大萧条把战间期的怨愤变成了那些运动的政治机会——这些运动早在 1914 年之前就已存在,但此前从未能够取得政权。

词汇表 训练
英文 中文 拼音
Great Depression 大萧条 dà xiāo tiáo
undermined Western European democracies 削弱西欧民主国家 xuē ruò xī ōu mín zhǔ guó jiā
8.6

法西斯主义与极权主义
大纲

8.6 Fascism and Totalitarianism

Thematic FocusLearning ObjectiveHistorical Developments

SOP
States and Other Institutions of Power — European states and nations developed governmental and civil institutions from 1450 to the present to organize society and consolidate political power, with a variety of social, cultural, and economic effects.

Unit 8.H
Explain the factors that led to the development of fascist and totalitarian regimes in the aftermath of World War I.

  • KC-4.2.II The ideology of fascism, with roots in the pre-World War I era, gained popularity in an environment of postwar bitterness, the rise of communism, uncertain transitions to democracy, and economic instability.
    • KC-4.2.II.A Fascist dictatorships used modern technology and propaganda that rejected democratic institutions, promoted charismatic leaders, and glorified war and nationalism to attract the disillusioned.
    • KC-4.2.II.B Mussolini and Hitler rose to power by exploiting postwar bitterness and economic instability, using terror, and manipulating the fledgling and unpopular democracies in their countries.
    • KC-4.2.II.C Franco’s alliance with Italian and German fascists in the Spanish Civil War—in which the Western democracies did not intervene—represented a testing ground for World War II and resulted in authoritarian rule in Spain from 1936 to the mid-1970s.
    • KC-4.2.II.D After failures to establish functioning democracies, authoritarian dictatorships took power in central and eastern Europe during the interwar period. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS

Unit 8.I
Explain the consequences of Stalin’s economic policies and totalitarian rule in the Soviet Union.

  • KC-4.2.I.D.ii After Lenin’s death, Stalin undertook a centralized program of rapid economic modernization, often with severe repercussions for the population.
  • KC-4.2.I.E Stalin’s economic modernization of the Soviet Union came at a high price, including the liquidation of the kulaks (the land-owning peasantry) and other perceived enemies of the state, devastating famine in the Ukraine, purges of political rivals, and, ultimately, the creation of an oppressive political system.

Illustrative examples:

  • Fascist propaganda: §Bullet §Bullet Joseph Goebbels
    • Leni Riefenstahl §Bullet Architecture §Bullet
  • Authoritarian dictatorship in central and eastern Europe: §Bullet Poland
    • Hungary
    • Romania
  • The Soviet Union’s rapid economic modernization:
    • Collectivization §Bullet Five Year Plan
  • The Soviet Union’s oppressive political system: §Bullet Great purges §Bullet
    • Secret police

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

根源可追溯至战前的法西斯主义(fascism)意识形态,在战后的怨愤、共产主义的兴起、向民主的不稳定过渡与经济动荡的环境中获得了民众支持。这四重环境是 CED 自身对"为何在此时"的回答,它优于任何单一原因。

在苏联一侧,列宁去世后斯大林(Stalin)推行了集中的快速经济现代化方案,常伴以严厉的镇压。CED 明确指出了代价:现代化付出了高昂的代价,包括消灭富农(kulaks)与一场灾难性的饥荒(famine)。

本单元所引出的比较是结构性的而非意识形态性的:两个政权都主张对个人与国家的关系拥有全面权威,这正是第二项核心概念在发挥作用。

词汇表 训练
英文 中文 拼音
fascism 法西斯主义 fǎ xī sī zhǔ yì
Stalin 斯大林 sī dà lín
liquidation of the kulaks 富农 fù nóng
catastrophic famine 饥荒 jī huāng
8.7

两次大战之间的欧洲
大纲

8.7 Europe During the Interwar Period

Thematic FocusLearning ObjectiveHistorical Developments

SOP
States and Other Institutions of Power — European states and nations developed governmental and civil institutions from 1450 to the present to organize society and consolidate political power, with a variety of social, cultural, and economic effects.

Unit 8.J
Explain how and why various political and ideological factors resulted in the catastrophe of World War II.

  • KC-4.1.III.A French and British fears of another war, American isolationism, and deep distrust between Western democratic, capitalist nations and the authoritarian, communist Soviet Union allowed fascist states to rearm and expand their territory.
  • KC-4.1.III In the interwar period, fascism, extreme nationalism, racist ideologies, and the failure of appeasement resulted in the catastrophe of World War II, presenting a grave challenge to European civilization.

Illustrative examples:

  • Fascist states’ expansion allowed by European powers:
    • Remilitarization of the Rhineland
    • Italian invasion of Ethiopia
    • Annexation of Austria
    • Munich Agreement and its violation
    • Nazi–Soviet Non-Aggression Pact

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

未能阻止第二场战争,其原因是被点名的:

  • 英法对再次开战的恐惧、美国孤立主义(American isolationism),以及西方民主资本主义国家与苏联共产主义政权之间的深度互不信任,阻碍了有效的回应。
  • 法西斯主义、极端民族主义、种族主义意识形态与绥靖政策的失败(failure of appeasement)导致了第二次世界大战。
词汇表 训练
英文 中文 拼音
American isolationism 美国孤立主义 měi guó gū lì zhǔ yì
Fascism, extreme nationalism, racist ideologies, and the failure of appeasement 绥靖政策的失败 suí jìng zhèng cè de shī bài
8.8

第二次世界大战
大纲

8.8 World War II

Thematic FocusLearning ObjectiveHistorical Developments

TSI
Technological and Scientific Innovation — Scientific and technological innovations have increased efficiency, improved daily life, and shaped human development and interactions, having both intended and unintended consequences.

Unit 8.K
Explain how technology and innovation affected the course of World War II and the 20th century.

  • KC-4.1.III.B Germany’s Blitzkrieg warfare in Europe, combined with Japan’s attacks in Asia and the Pacific, brought the Axis powers early victories.
  • KC-4.1.III.C American and British industrial, scientific, and technological power, cooperative military efforts under the strong leadership of individuals such as Winston Churchill, the resistance of civilians, and the all-out military commitment of the USSR contributed critically to the Allied victories.
  • KC-4.3.II.C Military technologies made possible industrialized warfare, genocide, nuclear proliferation, and the risk of global nuclear war.

Illustrative examples:

  • Blitzkrieg:
    • Polish campaign of 1939
    • Operation Barbarossa
    • Surrender of France

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

  • 德国在欧洲的闪电战(Blitzkrieg),加上日本在亚洲与太平洋的进攻,使轴心国取得了早期胜利。
  • 美英的工业、科学与技术力量,强有力领导下的军事协作,以及苏联庞大的人力与资源,最终击败了轴心国。
  • 军事技术使工业化战争、种族灭绝、核扩散(nuclear proliferation)与全球核战争的风险成为可能。
词汇表 训练
英文 中文 拼音
Blitzkrieg 闪电战 shǎn diàn zhàn
Military technologies made possible industrialised warfare, genocide, nuclear proliferation 核扩散 hé kuò sàn
8.9

犹太人大屠杀
大纲

8.9 The Holocaust

Thematic FocusLearning ObjectiveHistorical Developments

NEI
National and European Identity — Definitions and perceptions of regional, cultural, national, and European identity have developed and been challenged over time, with varied and often profound effects on the political, social, and cultural order in Europe.

Unit 8.L
Explain how and why cultural and national identities were affected by war and the rise of fascist/totalitarian powers in the period from 1914 to the present.

  • KC-4.1.III.D Fueled by racism and anti-Semitism, Nazi Germany—with the cooperation of some of the other Axis powers and collaborationist governments—sought to establish a “new racial order” in Europe, which culminated with the Holocaust.
  • KC-4.4.I.B World War II decimated a generation of Russian and German men; virtually destroyed European Jewry; resulted in the murder of millions in other groups targeted by the Nazis including Roma, homosexuals, people with disabilities, and others; forced large-scale migrations; and undermined prewar class hierarchies.

Illustrative examples:

  • Nazi establishment of a new racial order: §Bullet Nuremberg Laws
    • Wannsee Conference
    • Auschwitz and other death camps

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

在种族主义与反犹主义(racism and anti-Semitism)的驱动下,纳粹德国——在部分其他轴心国与合作者的配合下——利用工业技术与官僚机构对欧洲犹太人及其他被针对群体实施了系统性屠杀。

CED 的表述是精确的,应当照其复述:与早先的大规模暴力相区别之处,在于它把现代国家自身的工具——工业、官僚体系、交通、档案管理——用作手段。这正是本节属于技术与总体战主题、而非独立成篇的原因。

人口后果被直接陈述:第二次世界大战使一代俄国与德国男性大量丧生,几乎摧毁了欧洲的犹太社群,并造成数以百万计的其他死亡。

词汇表 训练
英文 中文 拼音
racism and anti-Semitism 种族主义与反犹主义 zhǒng zú zhǔ yì yǔ fǎn yóu zhǔ yì
"lost generation" 迷惘的一代 mí wǎng de yí dài
8.10

20世纪文化、思想与艺术的发展
大纲

8.10 20th-Century Cultural, Intellectual, and Artistic Developments

Thematic FocusLearning ObjectiveHistorical Developments

CID
Cultural and Intellectual Developments — The creation and transmission of knowledge, including the relationship between traditional sources of authority and the development of differing world views, had significant political, intellectual, economic, cultural, and social effects on European and world societies.

Unit 8.M
Explain how the events of the first half of the 20th century challenged existing social, cultural, and intellectual understandings.

  • KC-4.3.I.i The widely held belief in progress characteristic of much of 19th-century thought began to break down before World War I.
  • KC-4.3.I.A When World War I began, Europeans were generally confident in the ability of science and technology to address human needs and problems despite the uncertainty created by the new scientific theories and psychology.
  • KC-4.3.II.A The challenge to the certainties of the Newtonian universe in physics opened the door to uncertainty in other fields by undermining faith in objective knowledge while also providing the knowledge necessary for the development of nuclear weapons and power.
  • KC-4.4.I.A World War I created a “lost generation” and fostered disillusionment and cynicism, while it transformed the lives of women, and democratized societies.
  • KC-4.4.II.A During the world wars, women became increasingly involved in military and political mobilization, as well as in economic production.

Illustrative examples:

  • Physicists: §Bullet Albert Einstein §Bullet Werner Heisenberg §Bullet Erwin Schrödinger §Bullet Enrico Fermi
    • Niels Bohr

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

  • 十九世纪思想中普遍存在的进步信念,在第一次世界大战之前就已开始瓦解,并在战后崩塌。
  • 战争开始时,欧洲人普遍相信科学与技术有能力满足人类需要;战争继而大萧条动摇了这一信心。
  • 物理学中对牛顿式宇宙确定性的挑战,为其他领域的不确定性打开了大门。
  • 战争造就了**"迷惘的一代"(lost generation),并助长了幻灭与犬儒**(disillusionment and cynicism)。
  • 在两次大战期间,女性日益参与军事与政治动员以及经济生产。
词汇表 训练
英文 中文 拼音
disillusionment and cynicism 幻灭与犬儒 huàn miè yǔ quǎn rú
8.11

全球冲突时代的延续与变化
大纲

8.11 Continuity and Changes in an Age of Global Conflict

Learning ObjectiveReview: Unit 8 Key Concepts

Unit 8.N
Explain how economic challenges and ideological beliefs influenced prior conceptions about the relationship between the individual and the state.

  • KC-4.1 Total war and political instability in the first half of the 20th century gave way to a polarized state order during the Cold War and eventually to efforts at transnational union.
    • KC-4.1.I World War I, caused by a complex interaction of long- and short-term factors, resulted in immense losses and disruptions for both victors and vanquished.
    • KC-4.1.II The conflicting goals of the peace negotiators in Paris pitted diplomatic idealism against the desire to punish Germany, producing a settlement that satisfied few.
    • KC-4.1.III In the interwar period, fascism, extreme nationalism, racist ideologies, and the failure of appeasement resulted in the catastrophe of World War II, presenting a grave challenge to European civilization.
  • KC-4.2 The stresses of economic collapse and total war engendered internal conflicts within European states and created conflicting conceptions of the relationship between the individual and the state, as demonstrated in the ideological battle between and among democracy, communism, and fascism.
  • KC-4.3 During the 20th century, diverse intellectual and cultural movements questioned the existence of objective knowledge, the ability of reason to arrive at truth, and the role of religion in determining moral standards.
    • KC-4.3.II Science and technology yielded impressive material benefits but also caused immense destruction and posed challenges to objective knowledge.
  • KC-4.4 Demographic changes, economic growth, total war, disruptions of traditional social patterns, and competing definitions of freedom and justice altered the experiences of everyday life.
    • KC-4.4.I The 20th century was characterized by large-scale suffering brought on by warfare and genocide, but also by tremendous improvements in the standard of living.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

本单元考查的推理能力是延续与变化。

**Worked example(一道真实的 AP 考题)。*本单元的 AP 欧洲史简答题会要求,例如「解释 1919 年的和约在 1920 与 1930 年代造成欧洲政治不稳定的一种方式」。满分答案会追溯一条机制:「和约把对德国的惩罚性条款与它无法一贯兑现的民族自决诉求结合在一起。这留下了一个背负赔款、又因接受赔款而被指责的德国共和国,从而给了民族主义与法西斯运动一个可资利用的怨愤,而 1929 年的经济崩溃把这一怨愤转化为群众支持。」*注意答案把链条向前推进到了题目所问的时点。

8.11

考试技巧
  • 记住这条链条:战争、和约、经济崩溃、激进运动、绥靖失败、再度开战。多数题目问的是其中一环。
  • CED 为法西斯主义给出了四重环境——战后怨愤、对共产主义的恐惧、不稳定的民主、经济动荡。四项都要用。
  • 大萧条是枢纽。这些运动在 1929 年之前就已存在,但直到它发生才得以取得政权。
  • 谈大屠杀时,可考的要点是对现代国家自身工具的使用。要精确陈述这一点。
  • 委任统治是换了名义的帝国控制。写出这一点能把和约与去殖民化连接起来。
  • 对进步与客观性信心的崩塌,把本单元的政治与文化两半连接起来。阅卷人很看重这一联系。

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