剑桥 IGCSE IGCSE, A-Level & AP 练习单预览

工业化及其影响,约1815年至约1914年

AP 欧洲历史 · 第 6 主题

训练
讲义 词汇表
6.1

工业化及其起源与影响的时代背景
大纲

6.1 Contextualizing Industrialization and Its Origins and Effects

Learning ObjectivePreview: Unit 6 Key Concepts

Unit 6.A
Explain the context in which industrialization originated, developed, and spread in Europe.

  • KC-3.1 The Industrial Revolution spread from Great Britain to the continent, where the state played a greater role in promoting industry.
    • KC-3.1.I Great Britain established its industrial dominance through the mechanization of textile production, iron and steel production, and new transportation systems in conjunction with uniquely favorable political and social climates.
    • KC-3.1.II Following the British example, industrialization took root in continental Europe, sometimes with state sponsorship.
  • KC-3.2 The experiences of everyday life were shaped by industrialization, depending on the level of industrial development in a particular location.
    • KC-3.2.I Industrialization promoted the development of new classes in the industrial regions of Europe.
    • KC-3.2.II Europe experienced rapid population growth and urbanization, leading to social dislocations.
    • KC-3.2.III Over time, the Industrial Revolution altered the family structure and relations for bourgeois and working-class families.
  • KC-3.3 Political revolutions and the complications resulting from industrialization triggered a range of ideological, governmental, and collective responses.
    • KC-3.3.I Ideologies developed and took root throughout society as a response to industrial and political revolutions.
    • KC-3.3.II Governments, at times based on the pressure of political or social organizations, responded to problems created or exacerbated by industrialization.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

第六单元讲述约 1815 至 1914 年,建立在 CED 列为核心概念的三项论断之上:

  • 工业革命从英国扩散到欧洲大陆,而在大陆上国家在推动工业方面扮演了更大的角色。
  • 日常经验受工业化塑造的方式取决于某地的工业化程度——因此"生活是什么样的"这一问题的答案永远是在哪里、进展到何种阶段。
  • 政治革命与工业化带来的种种复杂后果,引发了一系列意识形态、政府与集体回应(ideological, governmental, and collective responses)。

第三项论断是本单元的骨干。工业化制造了问题;十九世纪的各种意识形态与改革,就是人们为这些问题提出的答案。

6.2

工业在欧洲的扩散
大纲

6.2 The Spread of Industry Throughout Europe

Thematic FocusLearning ObjectiveHistorical Developments

ECD
Economic and Commercial Developments — Economic development, especially the development of capitalism, played an important role in Europe’s history, often having significant social, political, and cultural effects.

Unit 6.B
Explain the factors that influenced the development of industrialization in Europe from 1815 to 1914.

  • KC-3.1.I.A Britain’s ready supplies of coal, iron ore, and other essential raw materials promoted industrial growth.
  • KC-3.1.I Great Britain established its industrial dominance through the mechanization of textile production, iron and steel production, and new transportation systems in conjunction with uniquely favorable political and social climates.
  • KC-3.1.I.B Economic institutions and human capital such as engineers, inventors, and capitalists helped Britain lead the process of industrialization, largely through private initiative.
  • KC-3.1.I.C Britain’s parliamentary government promoted commercial and industrial interests because those interests were represented in Parliament.
  • KC-3.1.II.A France moved toward industrialization at a more gradual pace than Great Britain, with government support and with less dislocation of traditional methods of production.
  • KC-3.1.II.C A combination of factors, including geography, lack of resources, the dominance of traditional landed elites, the persistence of serfdom in some areas, and inadequate government sponsorship, accounted for eastern and southern Europe’s lag in industrial development.
  • KC-3.2.V Because of the continued existence of more primitive agricultural practices and land-owning patterns, some areas of Europe lagged in industrialization while facing famine, debt, and land shortages.

Illustrative examples:

  • Britain’s leadership: §Bullet The Crystal Palace at the Great Exhibition of 1851 §Bullet Banks §Bullet Government financial awards to inventors Commercial interest in government: §Bullet Repeal of the Corn Laws Government support of industrialization: §Bullet Canals §Bullet Railroads §Bullet Trade agreements Geographic factors in eastern and southern Europe: §Bullet Lack of resources §Bullet Lack of adequate transportation Primitive agricultural practices and famines: §Bullet The “Hungry ’40s” §Bullet Irish potato famine §Bullet Russian serfdom

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

英国领先,CED 把原因作为一组给出:

  • 现成的煤、铁矿石与其他原料供应。
  • 纺织生产、钢铁与机床制造的机械化。
  • 经济制度与人力资本(human capital)——工程师、发明家与资本家。
  • 一个推动商业与工业利益的议会制政府,因为这些利益在议会中有代表——这是政治条件,也是学生最常漏掉的一项。

大陆随后出现分化,而这正是可考的比较:

  • 法国的工业化更为渐进,有政府支持,且比英国造成的社会失序(social dislocation)更少。
  • 在别处,地理条件、资源匮乏、传统地主精英的支配地位以及类似农奴的劳动关系的延续,减缓了工业化。
  • 由于更为原始的农业方式与土地占有形态延续下来,欧洲某些地区完全落在了后面。
6.3

第二次工业化浪潮及其影响
大纲

6.3 Second Wave Industrialization and Its Effects

Thematic FocusLearning ObjectiveHistorical Developments

ECD
Economic and Commercial Developments — Economic development, especially the development of capitalism, played an important role in Europe’s history, often having significant social, political, and cultural effects.

Unit 6.C
Explain how innovations and advances in technology during the Industrial Revolutions led to economic and social change.

  • KC-3.1.III.A Mechanization and the factory system became the predominant modes of production by 1914.
  • KC-3.1.III.B New technologies and means of communication and transportation—including railroads— resulted in more fully integrated national economies, a higher level of urbanization, and a truly global economic network.
  • KC-3.2.IV.B New, efficient methods of transportation and other innovations created new industries, improved the distribution of goods, increased consumerism, and enhanced quality of life.

Unit 6.D
Explain how industrialization influenced economic and political development throughout the period from 1815 to 1914.

  • KC-3.1.III During the second industrial revolution (c. 1870–1914), more areas of Europe experienced industrial activity, and industrial processes increased in scale and complexity.
    • KC-3.1.III.C Volatile business cycles in the last quarter of the 19th century led corporations and governments to try to manage the market through a variety of methods, including monopolies, banking practices, and tariffs.
  • KC-3.2.II.A Along with better harvests caused in part by the commercialization of agriculture, industrialization promoted population growth, longer life expectancy, and lowered infant mortality.
  • KC-3.2.IV A heightened consumerism developed as a result of the second industrial revolution.
    • KC-3.2.IV.A Industrialization and mass marketing increased both the production and demand for a new range of consumer goods— including clothing, processed foods, and labor-saving devices—and created more leisure opportunities.
    • KC-3.2.IV.A Industrialization in Prussia allowed that state to become the leader of a unified Germany, which subsequently underwent rapid industrialization under government sponsorship.

Illustrative examples:

  • Factory production: §Bullet Manchester, England §Bullet The Krupp family (Essen, Germany) New technologies: §Bullet Bessemer process §Bullet Mass production §Bullet Electricity §Bullet Chemicals Developments in communication and transportation: §Bullet Telegraph §Bullet Steamship §Bullet Streetcars or trolley cars §Bullet Telephones §Bullet Internal combustion engine §Bullet Airplane §Bullet Radio New, efficient methods of transportation and other innovations: §Bullet Steamships §Bullet Railroads §Bullet Refrigerated rail cars §Bullet Ice boxes §Bullet Streetcars §Bullet Bicycles New industries: §Bullet Chemical industry §Bullet Electricity and utilities §Bullet Automobile §Bullet Leisure travel §Bullet Professional and leisure sport (CONT’D) Mass marketing: §Bullet Advertising §Bullet Department stores §Bullet Catalogs Industrialization in Prussia: §Bullet Zollverein §Bullet Investment in transportation network §Bullet Adoption of improved methods of manufacturing §Bullet Friedrich List’s National System

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

到 1914 年,机械化与工厂制度已成为主导的生产方式。在第二次工业革命(second industrial revolution,约 1870-1914)期间,工业活动扩展到欧洲更多地区,并且:

  • 新技术与新的通信、运输方式——尤其是铁路(railroads)——造就了更加一体化的国民经济(integrated national economies)。
  • 高效运输与其他创新催生了新产业,并改善了商品分销。
  • 与农业商业化带来的更好收成一道,工业化推动了人口增长(population growth)。
  • 消费主义(consumerism)显著增强。
词汇表 训练
英文 中文 拼音
triggered a range of ideological, governmental, and collective responses 意识形态、政府与集体回应 yì shí xíng tài 、 zhèng fǔ yǔ jí tǐ huí yìng
Economic institutions and human capital 人力资本 rén lì zī běn
less social dislocation 社会失序 shè huì shī xù
second industrial revolution 第二次工业革命 dì èr cì gōng yè gé mìng
railroads 铁路 tiě lù
more fully integrated national economies 一体化的国民经济 yī tǐ huà de guó mín jīng jì
promoted population growth 人口增长 rén kǒu zēng zhǎng
heightened consumerism 消费主义 xiāo fèi zhǔ yì
6.4

工业化的社会影响
大纲

6.4 Social Effects of Industrialization

Thematic FocusLearning ObjectiveHistorical Developments

SCD
Social Organization and Development — Economic, political, and cultural factors have influenced the form and status of family, class, and social groups in European history, which has, in turn, affected both the individual and society.

Unit 6.E
Explain the causes and consequences of social developments resulting from industrialization.

  • KC-3.2.I.A In industrialized areas of Europe (i.e., western and northern Europe), socioeconomic changes created divisions of labor that led to the development of self-conscious classes, including the proletariat and the bourgeoisie.
  • KC-3.2.I.B In some of the less industrialized areas of Europe, the dominance of agricultural elites continued into the 20th century.
  • KC-3.2.I.C Class identity developed and was reinforced through participation in philanthropic, political, and social associations among the middle classes, and in mutual aid societies and trade unions among the working classes.
  • KC-3.2.II.B With migration from rural to urban areas in industrialized regions, cities experienced overcrowding, while affected rural areas suffered declines in available labor as well as weakened communities.
  • KC-3.2.III.A Bourgeois families became focused on the nuclear family and the cult of domesticity, with distinct gender roles for men and women.
  • KC-3.2.III.B By the end of the century, higher wages, laws restricting the labor of children and women, social welfare programs, improved diet, and increased access to birth control affected the quality of life for the working class.
  • KC-3.2.III.C Economic motivations for marriage, while still important for all classes, diminished as the middle-class notion of companionate marriage began to be adopted by the working classes.
  • KC-3.2.III.D Leisure time centered increasingly on the family or small groups, concurrent with the development of activities and spaces to use that time.

Illustrative examples:

  • Laws restricting the labor of children and women: §Bullet Factory Act of 1833 §Bullet Mines Act of 1842 §Bullet Ten Hours Act of 1847 Leisure time activities and spaces: §Bullet Parks §Bullet Sports clubs and arenas §Bullet Beaches §Bullet Department stores §Bullet Museums §Bullet Theaters §Bullet Opera houses

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

  • 在已工业化的西欧与北欧,社会经济变化造就了劳动分工,由此形成企业家与专业人士的中产阶级以及工业工人阶级。
  • 在工业化程度较低的地区,农业精英的支配地位延续到二十世纪。
  • 阶级认同(class identity)通过参与慈善、政治与社会团体而形成并得到强化。
  • 由乡入城的迁移造成城市拥挤(urban overcrowding),而受影响的乡村地区则人口流失。
  • 资产阶级家庭以核心家庭与家庭崇拜(cult of domesticity)为中心,性别角色分明。
  • 到世纪末,更高的工资、限制童工与女工的法律、社会福利方案与改善的饮食提高了生活水平。
  • 随着中产阶级伴侣式婚姻(companionate marriage)观念的传播,婚姻的经济动机有所减弱。
  • 闲暇时间日益以家庭或小群体为中心,并出现了为此而建的活动与场所。
词汇表 训练
英文 中文 拼音
Class identity 阶级认同 jiē jí rèn tóng
urban overcrowding 城市拥挤 chéng shì yōng jǐ
cult of domesticity 家庭崇拜 jiā tíng chóng bài
companionate marriage 伴侣式婚姻 bàn lǚ shì hūn yīn
6.5

欧洲协调体系与欧洲保守主义
大纲

6.5 The Concert of Europe and European Conservatism

Thematic FocusLearning ObjectiveHistorical Developments

SOP
States and Other Institutions of Power — European states and nations developed governmental and civil institutions from 1450 to the present to organize society and consolidate political power, with a variety of social, cultural, and economic effects.

Unit 6.F
Explain how the European political order was maintained and challenged from 1815 to 1914.

  • KC-3.3.I.C Conservatives developed a new ideology in support of traditional political and religious authorities, which was based on the idea that human nature was not perfectible.
  • KC-3.4.I The Concert of Europe (or Congress System) sought to maintain the status quo through collective action and adherence to conservatism.
    • KC-3.4.I.A Metternich, architect of the Concert of Europe, used it to suppress nationalist and liberal revolutions.
    • KC-3.4.I.B Conservatives reestablished control in many European states and attempted to suppress movements for change and, in some areas, to strengthen adherence to religious authorities.

Illustrative examples:

  • Influential conservative influences: §Bullet Edmund Burke §Bullet Joseph de Maistre §Bullet Klemens von Metternich

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

欧洲协调(Concert of Europe),又称会议体系,试图通过集体行动与遵循保守原则来维持现状。

这一时期的保守主义(conservatism)是一种真正的意识形态,而不只是抗拒:它支持传统的政治与宗教权威,理由是社会是一个具有自然等级的有机整体,不可能凭抽象理性重新设计而不造成损害。

词汇表 训练
英文 中文 拼音
Concert of Europe 欧洲协调 ōu zhōu xié tiáo
Conservatism 保守主义 bǎo shǒu zhǔ yì
6.6

反应与革命
大纲

6.6 Reactions and Revolutions

Thematic FocusLearning ObjectiveHistorical Developments

SOP
States and Other Institutions of Power — European states and nations developed governmental and civil institutions from 1450 to the present to organize society and consolidate political power, with a variety of social, cultural, and economic effects.

Unit 6.G
Explain how and why various groups reacted against the existing order from 1815 to 1914.

  • KC-3.4.I.C In the first half of the 19th century, revolutionaries attempted to destroy the status quo.
  • KC-3.4.I.D The revolutions of 1848, triggered by economic hardship and discontent with the political status quo, challenged conservative politicians and governments and led to the breakdown of the Concert of Europe.
  • KC-3.4.II.D In Russia, autocratic leaders pushed through a program of reform and modernization, including the emancipation of the serfs, which gave rise to revolutionary movements and eventually the Russian Revolution of 1905.

Illustrative examples:

  • Early 19th-century political revolts: §Bullet War of Greek Independence §Bullet Decembrist revolt in Russia §Bullet Polish rebellion §Bullet July Revolution in France Reformers in Russia: §Bullet Alexander II §Bullet Sergei Witte §Bullet Peter Stolypin

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

十九世纪上半叶,革命者试图摧毁现状。由经济困难与对政治秩序的不满引发的1848 年革命(revolutions of 1848)挑战了全欧洲的保守势力——并且大体失败,而这本身也在考查范围内。

在俄国,专制统治者自上而下推行改革与现代化,包括农奴解放(emancipation of the serfs)——改革在这里是革命的替代方案,而不是对革命的让步。

词汇表 训练
英文 中文 拼音
revolutions of 1848 1848年革命 1848 nián gé mìng
emancipation of the serfs 农奴解放 nóng nú jiě fàng
6.7

变革思潮与改革运动
大纲

6.7 Ideologies of Change and Reform Movements

Thematic FocusLearning ObjectiveHistorical Developments

CID
Cultural and Intellectual Developments — The creation and transmission of knowledge, including the relationship between traditional sources of authority and the development of differing world views, had significant political, intellectual, economic, cultural, and social effects on European and world societies.

Unit 6.H
Explain how and why different intellectual developments challenged the political and social order from 1815 to 1914.

  • KC-3.3.I.A Liberals emphasized popular sovereignty, individual rights, and enlightened self-interest but debated the extent to which all groups in society should actively participate in its governance.
  • KC-3.3.I.B Radicals in Britain and republicans on the continent demanded universal male suffrage and full citizenship without regard to wealth and property ownership; some argued that such rights should be extended to women.
  • KC-3.3.I.D Socialists called for the redistribution of society’s resources and wealth and evolved from a utopian to a Marxist scientific critique of capitalism.
  • KC-3.6.II.C Marx’s scientific socialism provided a systematic critique of capitalism and a deterministic analysis of society and historical evolution.
  • KC-3.3.I.E Anarchists asserted that all forms of governmental authority were unnecessary and should be overthrown and replaced with a society based on voluntary cooperation.

Illustrative examples:

  • Liberals: §Bullet Jeremy Bentham §Bullet Anti-Corn Law League §Bullet John Stuart Mill Advocates of suffrage: §Bullet Chartists §Bullet Flora Tristan Utopian socialists: §Bullet Henri de Saint-Simon §Bullet Charles Fourier §Bullet Robert Owen Marxists: §Bullet Friedrich Engels §Bullet Clara Zetkin §Bullet Rosa Luxemburg Anarchists: §Bullet Mikhail Bakunin §Bullet Georges Sorel

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

这个世纪的争论,一览无余——每种意识形态都在以不同方式回答同一个问题
题目要求你区分它们,所以要把它们作为一组来学,而不是一次学一个

CED 点名了五种立场,最好把它们当作对同一个问题的回答来记:权力应当归谁,国家应当做什么?

  • 自由主义者(liberals)强调人民主权、个人权利与开明的自利,但就政治权力应在多大范围内共享存在争论。
  • 英国的激进派(radicals)与大陆的共和派(republicans)要求男性普选权(universal male suffrage)与不问财产的完整公民权。
  • 社会主义者(socialists)呼吁重新分配社会的资源与财富,从空想社会主义演进为马克思的科学社会主义。
  • 马克思的科学社会主义(scientific socialism)提供了对资本主义的系统批判,以及对社会与历史变迁的决定论分析。
  • 无政府主义者(anarchists)主张一切形式的政府权威都无必要,应以基于自愿合作的社会取而代之。
词汇表 训练
英文 中文 拼音
Liberals 自由主义者 zì yóu zhǔ yì zhě
universal male suffrage 男性普选权 nán xìng pǔ xuǎn quán
Socialists 社会主义者 shè huì zhǔ yì zhě
Marx's scientific socialism 科学社会主义 kē xué shè huì zhǔ yì
Anarchists 无政府主义者 wú zhèng fǔ zhǔ yì zhě
Liberalism shifted from laissez-faire to interventionist 从自由放任转向干预 cóng zì yóu fàng rèn zhuǎn xiàng gān yù
6.8 6.9

19世纪的社会改革
大纲

6.8 19th-Century Social Reform

Thematic FocusLearning ObjectiveHistorical Developments

SCD
Social Organization and Development — Economic, political, and cultural factors have influenced the form and status of family, class, and social groups in European history, which has, in turn, affected both the individual and society.

Unit 6.I
Explain the various movements and calls for social reform that resulted from intellectual developments from 1815 to 1914.

  • KC-3.3.III Political movements and social organizations responded to problems of industrialization.
    • KC-3.3.III.A Mass-based political parties emerged as sophisticated vehicles for social, economic, and political reform.
    • KC-3.3.III.B Workers established labor unions and movements promoting social and economic reforms that also developed into political parties.
    • KC-3.3.III.C Feminists pressed for legal, economic, and political rights for women as well as improved working conditions.
    • KC-3.3.III.D Various nongovernmental reform movements, many of them religious, assisted the poor and worked to end serfdom and slavery.

Illustrative examples:

  • Mass-based political parties: §Bullet Conservatives and Liberals in Great Britain §Bullet Conservatives and Socialists in France §Bullet Social Democratic Party in Germany Political parties representing workers: §Bullet German Social Democratic Party §Bullet British Labour Party §Bullet Russian Social Democratic Party Feminists and feminist movements: §Bullet Flora Tristan §Bullet British Women’s Social and Political Union §Bullet Pankhurst family §Bullet Barbara Smith Bodichon Reform movements and social reformers: §Bullet The Sunday School movement §Bullet The temperance movement §Bullet British abolitionist movement §Bullet Josephine Butler

6.9 Institutional Responses and Reform

Thematic FocusLearning ObjectiveHistorical Developments

SOP
States and Other Institutions of Power — European states and nations developed governmental and civil institutions from 1450 to the present to organize society and consolidate political power, with a variety of social, cultural, and economic effects.

Unit 6.J
Explain how and why governments and other institutions responded to challenges resulting from industrialization.

  • KC-3.3.II.A Liberalism shifted from laissez-faire to interventionist economic and social policies in response to the challenges of industrialization.
  • KC-3.3.II.B Reforms transformed unhealthy and overcrowded cities by modernizing infrastructure, regulating public health, reforming prisons, and establishing modern police forces. The reforms were enacted by governments motivated by such forces as public opinion, prominent individuals, and charity organizations.
  • KC-3.3.II.C Reformers promoted compulsory public education to advance the goals of public order, nationalism, and economic growth.

Illustrative examples:

  • Modernizing infrastructure: §Bullet Sewage and water systems §Bullet Public lighting §Bullet Public housing §Bullet Urban redesign §Bullet Parks §Bullet Public transportation §Bullet Edwin Chadwick §Bullet Georges Haussmann

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

**政治运动与社会组织回应了工业化的问题。**制度层面的回应同样可考:

  • 自由主义从自由放任转向干预(from laissez-faire to interventionist)的经济与社会政策,以应对工业化的挑战。这是本单元最重要的思想变化——那个起初主张国家退出的意识形态,最终开始运用国家。
  • 各项改革通过现代化基础设施、监管公共卫生与改革监狱,改变了不卫生且过度拥挤的城市。
  • 改革者推动义务教育(compulsory public education),以促进公共秩序、民族主义与经济增长。要注意这三项动机——CED 都列出来了,没有一项是纯粹出于善意。
词汇表 训练
英文 中文 拼音
compulsory public education 义务教育 yì wù jiào yù
6.10

工业化时代的因果关系
大纲

6.10 Causation in the Age of Industrialization

Learning ObjectiveReview: Unit 6 Key Concepts

Unit 6.K
Explain the influence of innovations and technological developments in Europe from 1815 to 1914.

  • KC-3.1 The Industrial Revolution spread from Great Britain to the continent, where the state played a greater role in promoting industry.
    • KC-3.1.I Great Britain established its industrial dominance through the mechanization of textile production, iron and steel production, and new transportation systems in conjunction with uniquely favorable political and social climates.
    • KC-3.1.II Following the British example, industrialization took root in continental Europe, sometimes with state sponsorship.
  • KC-3.2 The experiences of everyday life were shaped by industrialization, depending on the level of industrial development in a particular location.
    • KC-3.2.I Industrialization promoted the development of new classes in the industrial regions of Europe.
    • KC-3.2.II Europe experienced rapid population growth and urbanization, leading to social dislocations.
    • KC-3.2.III Over time, the Industrial Revolution altered the family structure and relations for bourgeois and working-class families.
  • KC-3.3 Political revolutions and the complications resulting from industrialization triggered a range of ideological, governmental, and collective responses.
    • KC-3.3.I Ideologies developed and took root throughout society as a response to industrial and political revolutions.
    • KC-3.3.II Governments, at times based on the pressure of political or social organizations, responded to problems created or exacerbated by industrialization.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

本单元考查的推理能力是因果关系。

Worked example(一道真实的 AP 考题)。本单元的 AP 欧洲史简答题会要求,例如「解释十九世纪工业化促成新政治意识形态的一种方式」。满分答案会追溯这一联系:「工业化造就了一个境遇相同却没有政治代表的庞大城市工人阶级,这为社会主义者提供了受众与论据:工业所生产的财富是按所有权而非按劳动来分配的。马克思的科学社会主义把这一观察变成对资本主义的系统批判,而工人在工厂与城市中的集中,又使围绕它的组织成为可能。」*注意答案解释的是这一观念为何找到了受众*,而不只是它存在过。

6.10

考试技巧
  • 英国的优势包括一项政治优势——工业利益在议会中有代表。多数答案只罗列资源。
  • **法国在国家支持下渐进工业化,社会失序较少。**这一对比能回答许多比较题。
  • 把五种意识形态作为一组来学,以"权力归谁、国家做什么"来区分。
  • 自由主义从自由放任转向干预是这个世纪关键的意识形态变化。要点出它。
  • 义务教育有三项动机——秩序、民族主义、增长。三项都要写。
  • 生活水平是在世纪末、经历数十年艰难之后才提高的。时间点就是得分点。

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