剑桥 IGCSE IGCSE, A-Level & AP 练习单预览

大气污染

AP 环境科学 · 第 7 主题

训练
讲义 词汇表
7.1

空气污染导论
大纲
Enduring UnderstandingLearning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

STB-2
Human activities have physical, chemical, and biological consequences for the atmosphere.

STB-2.A
Identify the sources and effects of air pollutants.

  • STB-2.A.1 Coal combustion releases air pollutants including carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, toxic metals, and particulates.
  • STB-2.A.2 The combustion of fossil fuels releases nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere. They lead to the production of ozone, formation of photochemical smog, and convert to nitric acid in the atmosphere, causing acid rain. Other pollutants produced by fossil fuel combustion include carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, and particulate matter.
  • STB-2.A.3 Air quality can be affected through the release of sulfur dioxide during the burning of fossil fuels, mainly diesel fuels.
  • STB-2.A.4 Through the Clean Air Act, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulated the use of lead, particularly in fuels, which dramatically decreased the amount of lead in the atmosphere.
  • STB-2.A.5 Air pollutants can be primary or secondary pollutants.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

空气污染(air pollution)是大气里有害的物质。一次污染物(primary pollutants)被直接排放(一氧化碳、氮氧化物、二氧化硫、颗粒物);二次污染物(secondary pollutants)在空气里由反应形成(像烟雾里的臭氧)。大多数来自车辆、发电厂和工业里的燃烧化石燃料。

词汇表 训练
英文 中文 拼音
Air pollution 空气污染 kōng qì wū rǎn
Primary pollutants 一次污染物 yī cì wū rǎn wù
secondary pollutants 二次污染物 èr cì wū rǎn wù
练习卷
7.2

光化学烟雾
大纲
Enduring UnderstandingLearning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

STB-2
Human activities have physical, chemical, and biological consequences for the atmosphere.

STB-2.B
Explain the causes and effects of photochemical smog and methods to reduce it.

  • STB-2.B.1 Photochemical smog is formed when nitrogen oxides and volatile organic hydrocarbons react with heat and sunlight to produce a variety of pollutants.
  • STB-2.B.2 Many environmental factors affect the formation of photochemical smog.
  • STB-2.B.3 Nitrogen oxide is produced early in the day. Ozone concentrations peak in the afternoon and are higher in the summer because ozone is produced by chemical reactions between oxygen and sunlight.
  • STB-2.B.4 Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs), such as formaldehyde and gasoline, evaporate or sublimate at room temperature. Trees are a natural source of VOCs.
  • STB-2.B.5 Photochemical smog often forms in urban areas because of the large number of motor vehicles there.
  • STB-2.B.6 Photochemical smog can be reduced through the reduction of nitrogen oxide and VOCs.
  • STB-2.B.7 Photochemical smog can harm human health in several ways, including causing respiratory problems and eye irritation.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

光化学烟雾(photochemical smog)在阳光驱动来自汽车尾气的氮氧化物和挥发性有机化合物之间的反应时形成,产生地面臭氧(ozone)。它在阳光充足、汽车多的城市里最严重,并伤害肺。(地面臭氧是一种污染物,不像高处保护性的臭氧层。)

洛杉矶的天际线在厚厚的灰褐色雾霾中几乎看不见,前景是高速公路上的汽车
洛杉矶上空的光化学烟雾:晴天里,汽车尾气在阳光中反应,形成遮住天际线的褐色雾霾
词汇表 训练
英文 中文 拼音
Photochemical smog 光化学烟雾 guāng huà xué yān wù
ozone 臭氧 chòu yǎng
练习卷
7.3

逆温现象
大纲
Enduring UnderstandingLearning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

STB-2
Human activities have physical, chemical, and biological consequences for the atmosphere.

STB-2.C
Describe thermal inversion and its relationship with pollution.

  • STB-2.C.1 During a thermal inversion, the normal temperature gradient in the atmosphere is altered as the air temperature at the Earth's surface is cooler than the air at higher altitudes.
  • STB-2.C.2 Thermal inversion traps pollution close to the ground, especially smog and particulates.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

逆温现象

一个逆温(thermal inversion)把污染困在地面附近。通常温暖的空气上升并把污染物带走,但在一个逆温里一层温暖的空气坐在较凉的空气之上,把它封住。污染物在下面积累——造成危险的烟雾事件,尤其是在山谷里。

通常温暖的空气上升并扩散污染;一个逆温把它封在地面附近
通常温暖的空气上升并扩散污染;一个逆温把它封在地面附近
词汇表 训练
英文 中文 拼音
thermal inversion 逆温 nì wēn
练习卷
7.4

大气二氧化碳与颗粒物
大纲
Enduring UnderstandingLearning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

STB-2
Human activities have physical, chemical, and biological consequences for the atmosphere.

STB-2.D
Describe natural sources of $CO_2$ and particulates.

  • STB-2.D.1 $CO_2$ appears naturally in the atmosphere from sources such as respiration, decomposition, and volcanic eruptions.
  • STB-2.D.2 There are a variety of natural sources of particulate matter.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

来自化石燃料的上升的大气 $\text{CO}_2$ 增强温室效应并使气候变暖。颗粒物(particulate matter)(微小的固体/液体颗粒,PM2.5 和 PM10)深入肺,造成呼吸和心脏疾病,并降低能见度。

词汇表 训练
英文 中文 拼音
Particulate matter 颗粒物 kē lì wù
练习卷
7.5

室内空气污染物
大纲
Enduring UnderstandingLearning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

STB-2
Human activities have physical, chemical, and biological consequences for the atmosphere.

STB-2.E
Identify indoor air pollutants.

  • STB-2.E.1 Carbon monoxide is an indoor air pollutant that is classified as an asphyxiant.
  • STB-2.E.2 Indoor air pollutants that are classified as particulates include asbestos, dust, and smoke.
  • STB-2.E.3 Indoor air pollutants can come from natural sources, human-made sources, and combustion.
  • STB-2.E.4 Common natural source indoor air pollutants include radon, mold, and dust.
  • STB-2.E.5 Common human-made indoor air pollutants include insulation, Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) from furniture, paneling and carpets; formaldehyde from building materials, furniture, upholstery, and carpeting; and lead from paints.
  • STB-2.E.6 Common combustion air pollutants include carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, particulates, and tobacco smoke.
  • STB-2.E.7 Radon-222 is a naturally occurring radioactive gas that is produced by the decay of uranium found in some rocks and soils.

STB-2.F
Describe the effects of indoor air pollutants.

  • STB-2.F.1 Radon gas can infiltrate homes as it moves up through the soil and enters homes via the basement or cracks in the walls or foundation. It is also dissolved in groundwater that enters homes through a well.
  • STB-2.F.2 Exposure to radon gas can lead to radon-induced lung cancer, which is the second leading cause of lung cancer in America.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

室内空气能比室外更污染。常见的室内污染物包括氡(radon)(来自地面的放射性气体,一个肺癌风险)、一氧化碳、石棉(asbestos)、烟草烟、霉菌,和来自油漆和家具的 VOCs。通风和源头控制减少暴露。

An indoor cookstove: biomass smoke is a major indoor air pollutant in many homes worldwide
An indoor cookstove: biomass smoke is a major indoor air pollutant in many homes worldwide
词汇表 训练
英文 中文 拼音
radon 氡 dōng
asbestos 石棉 shí mián
练习卷
7.6

空气污染物的减少
大纲
Enduring UnderstandingLearning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

STB-2
Human activities have physical, chemical, and biological consequences for the atmosphere.

STB-2.G
Explain how air pollutants can be reduced at the source.

  • STB-2.G.1 Methods to reduce air pollutants include regulatory practices, conservation practices, and alternative fuels.
  • STB-2.G.2 A vapor recovery nozzle is an air pollution control device on a gasoline pump that prevents fumes from escaping into the atmosphere when fueling a motor vehicle.
  • STB-2.G.3 A catalytic converter is an air pollution control device for internal combustion engines that converts pollutants (CO, $NO_x$, and hydrocarbons) in exhaust into less harmful molecules ($CO_2$, $N_2$, $O_2$, and $H_2O$).
  • STB-2.G.4 Wet and dry scrubbers are air pollution control devices that remove particulates and/or gases from industrial exhaust streams.
  • STB-2.G.5 Methods to reduce air pollution from coal-burning power plants include scrubbers and electrostatic precipitators.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

空气污染由技术和政策削减:汽车上的催化转化器(catalytic converters)、烟囱上的洗涤器(scrubbers)和静电除尘器(electrostatic precipitators)、更清洁的燃料,和像清洁空气法案(Clean Air Act)这样设定排放限制的法律。减少化石燃料使用解决根本原因。

一个催化转化器把有害的 NO 和 CO 变成无害的 N2 和 CO2
一个催化转化器把有害的 NO 和 CO 变成无害的 N2 和 CO2
词汇表 训练
英文 中文 拼音
catalytic converters 催化转化器 cuī huà zhuǎn huà qì
scrubbers 洗涤器 xǐ dí qì
electrostatic precipitators 静电除尘器 jìng diàn chú chén qì
练习卷
7.7

酸雨
大纲
Enduring UnderstandingLearning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

STB-2
Human activities have physical, chemical, and biological consequences for the atmosphere.

STB-2.H
Describe acid deposition.

  • STB-2.H.1 Acid rain and deposition is due to nitrogen oxides and sulfur oxides from anthropogenic and natural sources in the atmosphere.
  • STB-2.H.2 Nitric oxides that cause acid deposition come from motor vehicles and coal-burning power plants. Sulfur dioxides that cause acid deposition come from coal-burning power plants.

STB-2.I
Describe the effects of acid deposition on the environment.

  • STB-2.I.1 Acid deposition mainly affects communities that are downwind from coal-burning power plants.
  • STB-2.I.2 Acid rain and deposition can lead to the acidification of soils and bodies of water and corrosion of human-made structures.
  • STB-2.I.3 Regional differences in soils and bedrock affect the impact that acid deposition has on the region—such as limestone bedrock's ability to neutralize the effect of acid rain on lakes and ponds.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

酸雨(acid rain)在二氧化硫和氮氧化物与空气里的水反应制造硫酸和硝酸时形成,它们在很远的下风处落下。它使湖泊和土壤酸化(伤害鱼和树)、淋溶营养,并腐蚀建筑。减少 $\text{SO}_2$ 和 $\text{NO}_x$ 排放是修复。

氮和硫氧化物在雨里形成硝酸和硫酸
氮和硫氧化物在雨里形成硝酸和硫酸
Forest dieback: acid deposition from SO2 and NOx can damage trees far downwind of the source
Forest dieback: acid deposition from SO2 and NOx can damage trees far downwind of the source
探索

How acidic is acid rain?

Acid rain forms when sulfur and nitrogen oxides dissolve into rain, dropping its pH well below the normal ~5.6. Each pH unit down is ten times more acidic.

词汇表 训练
英文 中文 拼音
Acid rain 酸雨 suān yǔ
练习卷
7.8

噪声污染
大纲
Enduring UnderstandingLearning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

STB-2
Human activities have physical, chemical, and biological consequences for the atmosphere.

STB-2.J
Describe human activities that result in noise pollution and its effects.

  • STB-2.J.1 Noise pollution is sound at levels high enough to cause physiological stress and hearing loss.
  • STB-2.J.2 Sources of noise pollution in urban areas include transportation, construction, and domestic and industrial activity.
  • STB-2.J.3 Some effects of noise pollution on animals in ecological systems include stress, the masking of sounds used to communicate or hunt, damaged hearing, and causing changes to migratory routes.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

噪声污染(noise pollution)是环境里不想要的或有害的声音。主要的来源是道路交通、飞机、火车、工业和建筑。在人里,长时间或响亮的暴露造成听力损失(hearing loss)、压力(stress)、睡眠损失,和更高的血压。它也扰乱野生动物(wildlife):它掩盖动物用来交流、导航和找配偶的声音,而来自船只的水下噪声对鲸鱼和海豚尤其有害。它由隔音屏障、更安静的引擎和消音器,和像机场周围缓冲区这样的土地使用规划来减少。

Worked example. 正常雨的 pH 约为 5.6;一个酸雨样本测得 pH 3.6。因为 pH 是以 10 为底的对数刻度,每一个单位是氢离子浓度 $10\times$ 的变化,所以 pH 3.6 比正常雨酸 $10^{(5.6-3.6)}=10^{2}=100$ 倍。这一百倍的跳跃就是为什么酸雨如此快地损害叶子、土壤和石灰岩。

词汇表 训练
英文 中文 拼音
noise pollution 噪声污染 zào shēng wū rǎn
hearing loss 听力损失 tīng lì sǔn shī
stress 压力 yā lì
wildlife 野生动物 yě shēng dòng wù
练习卷
7.8

考试技巧
  • 把一次污染物(直接排放:CO、NOₓ、SO₂、颗粒物)与二次(在空气里形成:地面臭氧)区分开。
  • 地面臭氧是一种污染物,但高处的臭氧层是保护性的——不要把它们搞混。
  • 解释一个逆温如何把污染困在地面附近。
  • 酸雨(来自 SO₂ 和 NOₓ)常常在很远的下风处落下,使它成为一个国际问题。
  • 把控制方法与污染物联系起来(催化转化器、洗涤器、更清洁的燃料、排放法律)。

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