生物世界：生物多样性

AP 环境科学 · 第 2 主题

训练

讲义词汇表

2.1

生物多样性导论

大纲

Enduring Understanding	Learning Objective	Essential Knowledge
ERT-2 Ecosystems have structure and diversity that change over time.	ERT-2.A Explain levels of biodiversity and their importance to ecosystems.	ERT-2.A.1 Biodiversity in an ecosystem includes genetic, species, and habitat diversity. ERT-2.A.2 The more genetically diverse a population is, the better it can respond to environmental stressors. Additionally, a population bottleneck can lead to a loss of genetic diversity. ERT-2.A.3 Ecosystems that have a larger number of species are more likely to recover from disruptions. ERT-2.A.4 Loss of habitat leads to a loss of specialist species, followed by a loss of generalist species. It also leads to reduced numbers of species that have large territorial requirements. ERT-2.A.5 Species richness refers to the number of different species found in an ecosystem.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

生物多样性(biodiversity)是生命的多样性,在三个层次测量:

遗传多样性(genetic diversity)——一个物种之内基因的多样性。更多遗传多样性意味着一个种群能更好地应对环境压力(environmental stressors);一个种群瓶颈(population bottleneck)(数量的一次急剧下降)扔掉那个多样性并使幸存者脆弱。
物种多样性(species diversity)——物种的数量(物种丰富度(species richness))以及个体在它们之间分布得多均匀。
栖息地多样性(habitat diversity)——一个区域里栖息地的多样性。

物种更丰富的生态系统更有韧性的(resilient):它们更容易从破坏中恢复,因为多样的物种能在条件变化时填补角色。栖息地丧失以一个可预测的顺序移除物种——特化(specialist)物种(狭窄的需要)先走,然后是更强健的广适性(generalist)物种,而需要大领地的物种随着它们的范围缩小而减少。

生物多样性有三个层次:遗传、物种和栖息地

A coral reef: high biodiversity concentrates species and ecosystem services in a small area

词汇表训练

英文	中文	拼音
Biodiversity	生物多样性	shēng wù duō yàng xìng
environmental stressors	环境压力	huán jìng yā lì
population bottleneck	种群瓶颈	zhǒng qún píng jǐng
species richness	物种丰富度	wù zhǒng fēng fù dù
resilient	有韧性的	yǒu rèn xìng de
specialist	特化	tè huà
generalist	广适性	guǎng shì xìng
Ecosystem services	生态系统服务	shēng tài xì tǒng fú wù

练习卷

2.2

生态系统服务

大纲

Enduring Understanding	Learning Objective	Essential Knowledge
ERT-2 Ecosystems have structure and diversity that change over time.	ERT-2.B Describe ecosystem services.	ERT-2.B.1 There are four categories of ecosystem services: provisioning, regulating, cultural, and supporting.
	ERT-2.C Describe the results of human disruptions to ecosystem services.	ERT-2.C.1 Anthropogenic activities can disrupt ecosystem services, potentially resulting in economic and ecological consequences.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

生态系统服务(ecosystem services)是自然给人们的免费好处,分四类:

供给(provisioning)——产品:食物、淡水、木材、纤维。
调节(regulating)——保持条件稳定的过程:气候调节、水过滤、授粉、洪水控制。
文化(cultural)——非物质价值:娱乐、美、精神和教育价值。
支持(supporting)——使其他成为可能的服务:营养循环、土壤形成、光合作用。

人为的(anthropogenic)(人造成的)活动能扰乱这些服务,带来真实的经济和生态成本——例如,失去授粉者迫使农民为蜜蜂曾经免费做的授粉付钱。

词汇表训练

英文	中文	拼音
Anthropogenic	人为的	rén wéi de

练习卷

2.3

岛屿生物地理学

大纲

Enduring Understanding	Learning Objective	Essential Knowledge
ERT-2 Ecosystems have structure and diversity that change over time.	ERT-2.D Describe island biogeography.	ERT-2.D.1 Island biogeography is the study of the ecological relationships and distribution of organisms on islands, and of these organisms' community structures. ERT-2.D.2 Islands have been colonized in the past by new species arriving from elsewhere.
	ERT-2.E Describe the role of island biogeography in evolution.	ERT-2.E.1 Many island species have evolved to be specialists versus generalists because of the limited resources, such as food and territory, on most islands. The long-term survival of specialists may be jeopardized if and when invasive species, typically generalists, are introduced and outcompete the specialists.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

岛屿生物地理学

岛屿生物地理学(island biogeography)研究一个岛(或任何孤立的栖息地斑块)容纳多少物种。这个数字稳定在两个速率之间的一个平衡:

新物种的迁入(immigration)——对更接近大陆的岛更高。
常驻物种的灭绝(extinction)——在更大的岛上更低。

所以大的、近的岛容纳最多物种;小的、遥远的容纳最少。隔离也驱动进化:岛屿物种常常变成特化种因为资源有限,而许多是特有(endemic)的——别处找不到。这使它们脆弱。当一个入侵物种(invasive species)(通常是一个强健的广适性种)到达时,它能在竞争中胜过特化种,它们无处可去。

更大和更近的岛容纳更多物种,平衡迁入与灭绝

词汇表训练

英文	中文	拼音
Island biogeography	岛屿生物地理学	dǎo yǔ shēng wù dì lǐ xué
endemic	特有	tè yǒu
invasive species	入侵物种	rù qīn wù zhǒng
migration	迁徙	qiān xǐ

练习卷

2.4

生态耐受性

大纲

Enduring Understanding	Learning Objective	Essential Knowledge
ERT-2 Ecosystems have structure and diversity that change over time.	ERT-2.F Describe ecological tolerance.	ERT-2.F.1 Ecological tolerance refers to the range of conditions, such as temperature, salinity, flow rate, and sunlight that an organism can endure before injury or death results. ERT-2.F.2 Ecological tolerance can apply to individuals and to species.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

每个物种有一个耐受范围(range of tolerance)——它能生存的条件(温度、盐度、pH、阳光)的跨度。中间附近是一个个体繁荣的最适范围(optimal range);朝向边缘是胁迫区(zones of stress),那里它们生存但难以生长或繁殖;超过极限它们死亡。生态耐受性(ecological tolerance)既适用于一个单一的个体也适用于一个整个物种,而它决定一个生物能住在哪里以及它如何应对变化。

在它的最适范围之内一个物种繁荣;朝向极限它受胁迫,然后不能生存

词汇表训练

英文	中文	拼音
range of tolerance	耐受范围	nài shòu fàn wéi
optimal range	最适范围	zuì shì fàn wéi
zones of stress	胁迫区	xié pò qū
Ecological tolerance	生态耐受性	shēng tài nài shòu xìng

练习卷

2.5

生态系统的自然干扰

大纲

Enduring Understanding	Learning Objective	Essential Knowledge
ERT-2 Ecosystems have structure and diversity that change over time.	ERT-2.G Explain how natural disruptions, both short- and long-term, impact an ecosystem.	ERT-2.G.1 Natural disruptions to ecosystems have environmental consequences that may, for a given occurrence, be as great as, or greater than, many human-made disruptions. ERT-2.G.2 Earth system processes operate on a range of scales in terms of time. Processes can be periodic, episodic, or random. ERT-2.G.3 Earth's climate has changed over geological time for many reasons. ERT-2.G.4 Sea level has varied significantly as a result of changes in the amount of glacial ice on Earth over geological time. ERT-2.G.5 Major environmental change or upheaval commonly results in large swathes of habitat changes. ERT-2.G.6 Wildlife engages in both short- and long-term migration for a variety of reasons, including natural disruptions.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

自然事件跨每个时间尺度扰乱生态系统,而一个单一的自然事件能匹敌或超过一个人造的。地球的过程有三种时机模式:

周期性(periodic)——规则的循环(季节、潮汐)。
偶发性(episodic)——偶尔的、不规则的事件(火、洪水、火山爆发)。
随机(random)——没有模式(一次流星撞击)。

在地质时间里,地球的气候因许多原因转变过,而海平面随着冰川冰的量上升和下降过——每个变化重塑大片的栖息地。野生动物通过迁徙(migration)响应,移动短或长距离以跟随条件。

一堵火焰和浓烟组成的墙,在针叶林的树顶间飞速蔓延 — 一场穿过森林的树冠火。火是一种自然的偶发性干扰,许多物种都适应了它

词汇表训练

英文	中文	拼音
Periodic	周期性	zhōu qī xìng
Episodic	偶发性	ǒu fā xìng
Random	随机	suí jī

练习卷

2.6

适应

大纲

Enduring Understanding	Learning Objective	Essential Knowledge
ERT-2 Ecosystems have structure and diversity that change over time.	ERT-2.H Describe how organisms adapt to their environment.	ERT-2.H.1 Organisms adapt to their environment over time, both in short- and long-term scales, via incremental changes at the genetic level. ERT-2.H.2 Environmental changes, either sudden or gradual, may threaten a species' survival, requiring individuals to alter behaviors, move, or perish.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

一个适应(adaptation)是一个改善在一个环境里生存和繁殖的遗传性状。适应通过自然选择(natural selection)产生——渐进的遗传变化在世代间积累,不是在一个单一的一生之内。当环境变化时,个体必须改变它们的行为、移动,或死亡;若变化来得比一个种群能适应的更快,它减少。一个像火这样的周期性干扰常常是一个健康循环的一部分,而许多物种适应于它(一些松果只在一场火的热量下打开)。

词汇表训练

英文	中文	拼音
adaptation	适应	shì yìng
natural selection	自然选择	zì rán xuǎn zé

练习卷

2.7

生态演替

大纲

Enduring Understanding	Learning Objective	Essential Knowledge
ERT-2 Ecosystems have structure and diversity that change over time.	ERT-2.I Describe ecological succession.	ERT-2.I.1 There are two main types of ecological succession: primary and secondary succession. ERT-2.I.2 A keystone species in an ecosystem is a species whose activities have a particularly significant role in determining community structure. ERT-2.I.3 An indicator species is a plant or animal that, by its presence, abundance, scarcity, or chemical composition, demonstrates that some distinctive aspect of the character or quality of an ecosystem is present.
	ERT-2.J Describe the effect of ecological succession on ecosystems.	ERT-2.J.1 Pioneer members of an early successional species commonly move into unoccupied habitat and over time adapt to its particular conditions, which may result in the origin of new species. ERT-2.J.2 Succession in a disturbed ecosystem will affect the total biomass, species richness, and net productivity over time.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

生态演替

生态演替(ecological succession)是一个群落随时间逐渐的、有序的变化:

初级演替(primary succession)在没有土壤的裸岩上开始——在一个冰川退却或熔岩冷却之后。像地衣(lichens)这样的先锋物种(pioneer species)最先到达并缓慢地建立土壤。它慢。

一块岩石表面覆盖着黄色、橙色和淡绿色的结壳状地衣斑块 — 地衣直接长在裸岩上。作为先锋物种,它们缓慢地把岩石分解,建立最初薄薄的土壤

次级演替(secondary succession)跟随一个使土壤完好的干扰——在一场火或废弃的农业之后——所以它快得多。

演替趋向一个相对稳定的顶极群落(climax community)。两个特殊的角色以与它们数量不成比例的方式塑造一个群落:一个关键种(keystone species),它的活动把群落结构维系在一起(移除它群落就崩溃——海獭控制海胆),和一个指示物种(indicator species),它的存在或健康标志整个生态系统的状况(地衣在空气被污染的地方消失)。

初级演替从裸岩构建;次级演替从幸存的土壤重新生长

Worked example. 一个池塘有 3 种鱼,个体数为 5、3、2($N=10$)。辛普森多样性指数 $=1-\sum\left(\tfrac{n}{N}\right)^2 = 1-\left[(0.5)^2+(0.3)^2+(0.2)^2\right] = 1-0.38 = 0.62$。接近 1 的值意味着高多样性;接近 0 意味着一个物种占主导。再加一个大小均等的第四物种会把指数推得更高。

词汇表训练

英文	中文	拼音
Ecological succession	生态演替	shēng tài yǎn tì
Primary succession	初级演替	chū jí yǎn tì
Pioneer species	先锋物种	xiān fēng wù zhǒng
lichens	地衣	dì yī
Secondary succession	次级演替	cì jí yǎn tì
climax community	顶极群落	dǐng jí qún luò
keystone species	关键种	guān jiàn zhǒng
indicator species	指示物种	zhǐ shì wù zhǒng

练习卷

2.7

考试技巧

在三个层次描述生物多样性:遗传、物种和栖息地,并把更高的多样性与更大的韧性联系起来。
当一个栖息地变化时,特化物种(狭窄的需要)比广适性种更脆弱。
把初级演替(裸岩、无土壤、慢)与次级(土壤完好、更快)区分开。
解释一个关键种(超大的影响)和一个指示物种(标志生态系统健康)。
命名四个生态系统服务(供给、调节、文化、支持)并带例子。

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