全球变化

AP 环境科学 · 第 9 主题

训练

讲义词汇表

9.1

平流层臭氧耗损

大纲

Enduring Understanding	Learning Objective	Essential Knowledge
STB-4 Local and regional human activities can have impacts at the global level.	STB-4.A Explain the importance of stratospheric ozone to life on Earth.	STB-4.A.1 The stratospheric ozone layer is important to the evolution of life on Earth and the continued health and survival of life on Earth. STB-4.A.2 Stratospheric ozone depletion is caused by anthropogenic factors, such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), and natural factors, such as the melting of ice crystals in the atmosphere at the beginning of the Antarctic spring. STB-4.A.3 A decrease in stratospheric ozone increases the UV rays that reach the Earth's surface. Exposure to UV rays can lead to skin cancer and cataracts in humans.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

平流层臭氧损耗

平流层高处的臭氧层(ozone layer)吸收有害的紫外线(ultraviolet)辐射。氯氟烃(CFCs)(chlorofluorocarbons,曾用于冷却剂和喷雾)向上漂移并释放破坏臭氧的氯,使它变薄(南极"臭氧洞")。更多 UV 到达表面提高皮肤癌、白内障和作物损害。

一张南半球的 NASA 卫星图,一大片深蓝色的极低臭氧区集中在南极上空 — 南极上空的臭氧洞(深蓝色),来自 NASA 卫星图:这里是臭氧层变得最薄的地方

词汇表训练

英文	中文	拼音
ozone layer	臭氧层	chòu yǎng céng
ultraviolet	紫外线	zǐ wài xiàn

练习卷

9.2

减少臭氧耗损

大纲

Enduring Understanding	Learning Objective	Essential Knowledge
STB-4 Local and regional human activities can have impacts at the global level.	STB-4.B Describe chemicals used to substitute for chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).	STB-4.B.1 Ozone depletion can be mitigated by replacing ozone-depleting chemicals with substitutes that do not deplete the ozone layer. Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) are one such replacement, but some are strong greenhouse gases.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

蒙特利尔议定书(Montreal Protocol)(1987)在全世界逐步淘汰 CFCs,而且是一个罕见的环境成功——臭氧层正在缓慢恢复。替代品(像 HFCs 和 HCFCs)替换了 CFCs,尽管一些本身是温室气体。

词汇表训练

英文	中文	拼音
Montreal Protocol	蒙特利尔议定书	méng tè lì ěr yì dìng shū

练习卷

9.3

温室效应

大纲

Enduring Understanding	Learning Objective	Essential Knowledge
STB-4 Local and regional human activities can have impacts at the global level.	STB-4.C Identify the greenhouse gases.	STB-4.C.1 The principal greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide, methane, water vapor, nitrous oxide, and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). STB-4.C.2 While water vapor is a greenhouse gas, it doesn't contribute significantly to global climate change because it has a short residence time in the atmosphere. STB-4.C.3 The greenhouse effect results in the surface temperature necessary for life on Earth to exist.
	STB-4.D Identify the sources and potency of the greenhouse gases.	STB-4.D.1 Carbon dioxide, which has a global warming potential (GWP) of 1, is used as a reference point for the comparison of different greenhouse gases and their impacts on global climate change. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) have the highest GWP, followed by nitrous oxide, then methane.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

温室效应

温室效应(greenhouse effect)保持地球温暖:温室气体(greenhouse gases)让阳光进入但截留外出的红外热。这个自然的效应使地球可居住。问题是增强的温室效应——人类添加截留更多热的额外气体。

温室气体吸收地球放出的热并送一些回去

词汇表训练

英文	中文	拼音
greenhouse effect	温室效应	wēn shì xiào yìng
greenhouse gases	温室气体	wēn shì qì tǐ

练习卷

9.4

温室气体的增加

大纲

Enduring Understanding	Learning Objective	Essential Knowledge
STB-4 Local and regional human activities can have impacts at the global level.	STB-4.E Identify the threats to human health and the environment posed by an increase in greenhouse gases.	STB-4.E.1 Global climate change, caused by excess greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, can lead to a variety of environmental problems including rising sea levels resulting from melting ice sheets and ocean water expansion, and disease vectors spreading from the tropics toward the poles. These problems can lead to changes in population dynamics and population movements in response.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

人类活动提高温室气体:来自燃烧化石燃料和森林砍伐的 $\text{CO}_2$、来自牲畜、填埋场和稻田的甲烷(methane),和来自肥料的一氧化二氮(nitrous oxide)。甲烷每分子截留的热远多于 $\text{CO}_2$ 但没那么丰富。

为了公平地比较各种气体,我们使用全球变暖潜能值(GWP)(global warming potential)—— 相对于 $\text{CO}_2$,一单位某气体在一段设定的时间内截留多少热。$\text{CO}_2$ 是基准,GWP = 1,所以其他每一种气体都以它为参照来衡量。按 GWP 排序:CFCs 最高,然后是一氧化二氮,再是甲烷 —— 它们每分子截留的热都远多于 $\text{CO}_2$。但仅凭 GWP 并不能决定影响:$\text{CO}_2$ 总体上仍造成最多的变暖,因为它的排放量大得多。考试要求两方面都答到 —— 高的 GWP 以及排放了多少。

Coal mining and combustion: burning fossil fuels is the main driver of rising atmospheric CO2

词汇表训练

英文	中文	拼音
CFCs	氯氟烃	lǜ fú tīng
methane	甲烷	jiǎ wán
global warming potential (GWP)	全球变暖潜能值	quán qiú biàn nuǎn qián néng zhí

练习卷

9.5

全球气候变化

大纲

Enduring Understanding	Learning Objective	Essential Knowledge
STB-4 Local and regional human activities can have impacts at the global level.	STB-4.F Explain how changes in climate, both short- and long-term, impact ecosystems.	STB-4.F.1 The Earth has undergone climate change throughout geologic time, with major shifts in global temperatures causing periods of warming and cooling as recorded with $\text{CO}_2$ data and ice cores. STB-4.F.2 Effects of climate change include rising temperatures, melting permafrost and sea ice, rising sea levels, and displacement of coastal populations. STB-4.F.3 Marine ecosystems are affected by changes in sea level, some positively, such as in newly created habitats on now-flooded continental shelves, and some negatively, such as deeper communities that may no longer be in the photic zone of seawater. STB-4.F.4 Winds generated by atmospheric circulation help transport heat throughout the Earth. Climate change may change circulation patterns, as temperature changes may impact Hadley cells and the jet stream. STB-4.F.5 Oceanic currents, or the ocean conveyor belt, carry heat throughout the world. When these currents change, it can have a big impact on global climate, especially in coastal regions. STB-4.F.6 Climate change can affect soil through changes in temperature and rainfall, which can impact soil's viability and potentially increase erosion. STB-4.F.7 Earth's polar regions are showing faster response times to global climate change because ice and snow in these regions reflect the most energy back out to space, leading to a positive feedback loop. STB-4.F.8 As the Earth warms, this ice and snow melts, meaning less solar energy is radiated back into space and instead is absorbed by the Earth's surface. This in turn causes more warming of the polar regions. STB-4.F.9 Global climate change response time in the Arctic is due to positive feedback loops involving melting sea ice and thawing tundra, and the subsequent release of greenhouse gases like methane. STB-4.F.10 One consequence of the loss of ice and snow in polar regions is the effect on species that depend on the ice for habitat and food.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

气候变化(global climate change)是来自增强温室效应的气候的长期转变:上升的平均温度、融化的冰、上升的海平面(sea levels)、更极端的天气,和转变的降雨。它在全世界扰乱生态系统、农业和人类社区。

一堵高高的冰川冰墙,一大块正崩落入海,溅起一片水雾 — 一座冰川(glacier)崩解入海。变暖融化陆地上的冰,给海洋增加水并抬高海平面

词汇表训练

英文	中文	拼音
Global climate change	气候变化	qì hòu biàn huà
sea levels	海平面	hǎi píng miàn

练习卷

9.6

海洋变暖

大纲

Enduring Understanding	Learning Objective	Essential Knowledge
STB-4 Local and regional human activities can have impacts at the global level.	STB-4.G Explain the causes and effects of ocean warming.	STB-4.G.1 Ocean warming is caused by the increase in greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. STB-4.G.2 Ocean warming can affect marine species in a variety of ways, including loss of habitat, and metabolic and reproductive changes. STB-4.G.3 Ocean warming is causing coral bleaching, which occurs when the loss of algae within corals cause the corals to bleach white. Some corals recover and some die.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

随着气候变暖,海洋吸收大部分额外的热。海洋变暖造成珊瑚白化(coral bleaching)(珊瑚排出它们的藻类并能死亡)、转变物种范围、减少溶解氧,并——随着融化的冰——通过热膨胀(thermal expansion)提高海平面。

一丛分枝的珊瑚变得完全惨白,旁边是颜色较深的健康珊瑚礁 — 一丛白化的珊瑚:更暖的水使它排出彩色的藻类,只剩下裸露的白色骨架。如果高温持续,珊瑚会死

词汇表训练

英文	中文	拼音
coral bleaching	珊瑚白化	shān hú bái huà

练习卷

9.7

海洋酸化

大纲

Enduring Understanding	Learning Objective	Essential Knowledge
STB-4 Local and regional human activities can have impacts at the global level.	STB-4.H Explain the causes and effects of ocean acidification.	STB-4.H.1 Ocean acidification is the decrease in pH of the oceans, primarily due to increased $\text{CO}_2$ concentrations in the atmosphere, and can be expressed as chemical equations. STB-4.H.2 As more $\text{CO}_2$ is released into the atmosphere, the oceans, which absorb a large part of that $\text{CO}_2$, become more acidic. STB-4.H.3 Anthropogenic activities that contribute to ocean acidification are those that lead to increased $\text{CO}_2$ concentrations in the atmosphere: burning of fossil fuels, vehicle emissions, and deforestation. STB-4.H.4 Ocean acidification damages coral because acidification makes it difficult for them to form shells, due to the loss of calcium carbonate.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

海洋吸收我们约四分之一的 $\text{CO}_2$,它形成碳酸——海洋酸化(ocean acidification)。更低的 pH 使珊瑚、贝类和浮游生物更难建立碳酸钙(calcium carbonate)壳和骨骼,威胁海洋食物网。

探索

How the ocean acidifies

Oceans absorb CO$_2$, which forms carbonic acid and lowers seawater pH. Even a small drop is a big rise in acidity (the scale is logarithmic) and harms shell-builders.

词汇表训练

英文	中文	拼音
ocean acidification	海洋酸化	hǎi yáng suān huà
calcium carbonate	碳酸钙	tàn suān gài

练习卷

9.8

入侵物种

大纲

Enduring Understanding	Learning Objective	Essential Knowledge
EIN-4 The health of a species is closely tied to its ecosystem, and minor environmental changes can have a large impact.	EIN-4.A Explain the environmental problems associated with invasive species and strategies to control them.	EIN-4.A.1 Invasive species are species that can live, and sometimes thrive, outside of their normal habitat. Invasive species can sometimes be beneficial, but they are considered invasive when they threaten native species. EIN-4.A.2 Invasive species are often generalist, r-selected species and therefore may outcompete native species for resources. EIN-4.A.3 Invasive species can be controlled through a variety of human interventions.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

一个入侵物种(invasive species)是一个扩散并伤害它新生态系统的非本地物种。没有自然的捕食者,它在竞争中胜过本地种、传播疾病,并减少生物多样性(葛藤、斑马贻贝、缅甸蟒)。人类贸易和旅行把它们四处移动。

一片山坡上的树木完全被厚厚一层绿色的葛藤覆盖 — 入侵藤本植物葛藤把一片树木闷住。在新家里没有天敌,它把覆盖的一切都盖住并害死

词汇表训练

英文	中文	拼音
invasive species	入侵物种	rù qīn wù zhǒng

练习卷

9.9

濒危物种

大纲

Enduring Understanding	Learning Objective	Essential Knowledge
EIN-4 The health of a species is closely tied to its ecosystem, and minor environmental changes can have a large impact.	EIN-4.B Explain how species become endangered and strategies to combat the problem.	EIN-4.B.1 A variety of factors can lead to a species becoming threatened with extinction, such as being extensively hunted, having limited diet, being outcompeted by invasive species, or having specific and limited habitat requirements. EIN-4.B.2 Not all species will be in danger of extinction when exposed to the same changes in their ecosystem. Species that are able to adapt to changes in their environment or that are able to move to a new environment are less likely to face extinction. EIN-4.B.3 Selective pressures are any factors that change the behaviors and fitness of organisms within an environment. EIN-4.B.4 Species in a given ecosystem compete for resources like territory, food, mates, and habitat, and this competition may lead to endangerment or extinction. EIN-4.B.5 Strategies to protect animal populations include criminalizing poaching, protecting animal habitats, and legislation.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

一个濒危物种(endangered species)有灭绝的风险。原因被总结为 HIPPO:栖息地(Habitat)丧失、入侵(Invasive)物种、污染(Pollution)、人口(Population)(人类)增长,和过度采收(Overharvesting)。保护包括法律(濒危物种法案)、保护区和圈养繁殖。

A coral reef: habitat loss, warming and acidification put whole reef communities at risk of extinction

探索

A population under pressure

When deaths outpace births, a population falls toward extinction. Below a critical size, low genetic diversity and chance events make recovery harder.

词汇表训练

英文	中文	拼音
endangered species	濒危物种	bīn wēi wù zhǒng

练习卷

9.10

人类对生物多样性的影响

大纲

Enduring Understanding	Learning Objective	Essential Knowledge
EIN-4 The health of a species is closely tied to its ecosystem, and minor environmental changes can have a large impact.	EIN-4.C Explain how human activities affect biodiversity and strategies to combat the problem.	EIN-4.C.1 HIPPCO (habitat destruction, invasive species, population growth, pollution, climate change, and over exploitation) describes the main factors leading to a decrease in biodiversity. EIN-4.C.2 Habitat fragmentation occurs when large habitats are broken into smaller, isolated areas. Causes of habitat fragmentation include the construction of roads and pipelines, clearing for agriculture or development, and logging. EIN-4.C.3 The scale of habitat fragmentation that has an adverse effect on the inhabitants of a given ecosystem will vary from species to species within that ecosystem. EIN-4.C.4 Global climate change can cause habitat loss via changes in temperature, precipitation, and sea level rise. EIN-4.C.5 Some organisms have been somewhat or completely domesticated and are now managed for economic returns, such as honeybee colonies and domestic livestock. This domestication can have a negative impact on the biodiversity of that organism. EIN-4.C.6 Some ways humans can mitigate the impact of loss of biodiversity include creating protected areas, use of habitat corridors, promoting sustainable land use practices, and restoring lost habitats.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

栖息地丧失、气候变化、污染、入侵物种和过度开发一起,正在驱动一个快速的生物多样性丧失——一些人称它为第六次大灭绝。减少这些压力、保护栖息地和可持续的做法是减慢它并保护所有生命依赖的生态系统服务的方式。

一个具体且被大量考查的驱动因素是栖息地破碎化(habitat fragmentation):大片连续的栖息地被道路、管道和开发割裂成更小的、孤立的斑块。破碎化比单纯的面积丧失更糟,因为小斑块把种群彼此隔开,降低遗传多样性,并把更多边缘暴露给捕食者和入侵物种。

就地和迁地保护保护物种

Worked example. 大气 CO$_2$ 从工业化前的约 280 ppm 上升到今天的约 420 ppm。百分比增加是 $\dfrac{420-280}{280}\times100\% = \dfrac{140}{280}\times100\% = 50\%$。主要长寿命温室气体这大约 50% 的上升是增强温室效应和现代变暖的核心驱动因素。

词汇表训练

英文	中文	拼音
habitat fragmentation	栖息地破碎化	qī xī dì pò suì huà
The ozone hole	臭氧洞	chòu yǎng dòng
A glacier	冰川	bīng chuān

练习卷

9.10

考试技巧

把臭氧消耗(CFCs 让进更多 UV)和气候变化(温室气体截留更多热)当作两个不同的问题。
解释自然的温室效应和来自额外 CO₂ 和甲烷的增强版本。
连接海洋变暖(珊瑚白化)和海洋酸化(CO₂ → 碳酸 → 更弱的壳)。
一个入侵物种危险,因为它在它的新家里没有自然的捕食者。
用 HIPPO 总结对生物多样性的威胁(Habitat 栖息地丧失、Invasive 入侵物种、Pollution 污染、Population 人口、Overharvesting 过度采收)。

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