| Enduring Understanding | Learning Objective | Essential Knowledge |
|---|---|---|
ERT-1 | ERT-1.A |
|
AP 环境科学
AP 环境科学涵盖生态系统、生物多样性、种群、地球系统与资源、土地与水资源利用、能源资源与 消费、大气污染、水体与陆地污染,以及全球变化。它是真正跨学科的——生物、化学、地球科学与 政策融于一门课。
有两点决定分数。第一是计算:量纲分析、能量单位、种群增长、百分比变化。正因为它们客观,才 值得优先拿下;而考生失分往往败于单位换算,而非科学本身。第二是具体性——自由作答中能点出 具体污染物、法规或机制的答案,远胜于泛泛而谈"污染"或"监管"的答案。
术语量大但深度不高,因此分散复习比长时间集中复习更有效。本站笔记按 College Board 的单元 编排,每单元一页,计算逐步演示,并给出答案中应当引用的具体案例细节。
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1
生物世界：生态系统
1.1
生态系统导论
大纲
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
一个生态系统(ecosystem)是一个区域里所有的生物(生物的)和非生物(非生物的),一起相互作用。生物依赖彼此和它们的物理环境,而像捕食(predation)、竞争(competition)和共生(symbiosis)(互利共生、偏利共生、寄生)这样的相互作用塑造群落。
探索Explore how a population grows
Change the growth rate $r$ and the carrying capacity $K$. Growth is fast when a population is small, then levels off as resources run short and the ecosystem fills up.
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 ecosystem 生态系统 shēng tài xì tǒng predation 捕食 bǔ shí competition 竞争 jìng zhēng symbiosis 共生 gòng shēng 1.2
陆地生物群系
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge ERT-1
Ecosystems are the result of biotic and abiotic interactions.ERT-1.B
Describe the global distribution and principal environmental aspects of terrestrial biomes.- ERT-1.B.1 A biome contains characteristic communities of plants and animals that result from, and are adapted to, its climate.
- ERT-1.B.2 Major terrestrial biomes include taiga, temperate rainforests, temperate seasonal forests, tropical rainforests, shrubland, temperate grassland, savanna, desert, and tundra.
- ERT-1.B.3 The global distribution of nonmineral terrestrial natural resources, such as water and trees for lumber, varies because of some combination of climate, geography, latitude and altitude, nutrient availability, and soil.
- ERT-1.B.4 The worldwide distribution of biomes is dynamic; the distribution has changed in the past and may again shift as a result of global climate changes.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
一个生物群系(biome)是一个由它的气候和特有的生命定义的大区域。陆地生物群系(terrestrial biomes)(沙漠、草原、热带雨林、温带森林、针叶林、苔原)主要由温度和降水(precipitation)决定。每个都有适应那些条件的植物和动物。
下面两张图处在降水量的两个极端,这就是它们的生命看起来如此不同的原因:
热带雨林:全年又热又湿,因此有茂密分层的植物和任何陆地生物群系中最丰富的生物多样性 
沙漠:降水极少,所以只有稀疏的耐旱生命能存活 词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 biome 生物群系 shēng wù qún xì temperature and precipitation 降水 jiàng shuǐ tropical rainforest 热带雨林 rè dài yǔ lín desert 沙漠 shā mò 1.3
水生生物群系
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge ERT-1
Ecosystems are the result of biotic and abiotic interactions.ERT-1.C
Describe the global distribution and principal environmental aspects of aquatic biomes.- ERT-1.C.1 Freshwater biomes include streams, rivers, ponds, and lakes. These freshwater biomes are a vital resource for drinking water.
- ERT-1.C.2 Marine biomes include oceans, coral reefs, marshland, and estuaries. Algae in marine biomes supply a large portion of the Earth's oxygen, and also take in carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
- ERT-1.C.3 The global distribution of nonmineral marine natural resources, such as different types of fish, varies because of some combination of salinity, depth, turbidity, nutrient availability, and temperature.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
水生生物群系(aquatic biomes)覆盖地球比陆地更多。淡水(溪流、湖泊、湿地)和海洋(开阔海洋、珊瑚礁、河口)系统在盐度(salinity)、阳光和营养上不同。河口(estuaries)(河流遇到海洋的地方)和珊瑚礁尤其多产和生物多样。
珊瑚礁:温暖、阳光充足的浅水使它成为所有生物群系中最多产、生物最多样的之一 词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 salinity 盐度 yán dù Estuaries 河口 hé kǒu coral reef 珊瑚礁 shān hú jiāo 1.4
碳循环
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge ERT-1
Ecosystems are the result of biotic and abiotic interactions.ERT-1.D
Explain the steps and reservoir interactions in the carbon cycle.- ERT-1.D.1 The carbon cycle is the movement of atoms and molecules containing the element carbon between sources and sinks.
- ERT-1.D.2 Some of the reservoirs in which carbon compounds occur in the carbon cycle hold those compounds for long periods of time, while some hold them for relatively short periods of time.
- ERT-1.D.3 Carbon cycles between photosynthesis and cellular respiration in living things.
- ERT-1.D.4 Plant and animal decomposition have led to the storage of carbon over millions of years. The burning of fossil fuels quickly moves that stored carbon into atmospheric carbon, in the form of carbon dioxide.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
碳循环 碳循环(carbon cycle)在大气、生物、海洋和岩石之间移动碳。光合作用(photosynthesis)移除 $\text{CO}_2$;呼吸(respiration)、分解(decomposition)和燃烧化石燃料(fossil fuels)返回它。燃烧化石燃料添加碳的速度远快于自然过程移除它。
碳循环在大气、生物和化石燃料之间移动碳 词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 carbon cycle 碳循环 tàn xún huán fossil fuels 化石燃料 huà shí rán liào 1.5
氮循环
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge ERT-1
Ecosystems are the result of biotic and abiotic interactions.ERT-1.E
Explain the steps and reservoir interactions in the nitrogen cycle.- ERT-1.E.1 The nitrogen cycle is the movement of atoms and molecules containing the element nitrogen between sources and sinks.
- ERT-1.E.2 Most of the reservoirs in which nitrogen compounds occur in the nitrogen cycle hold those compounds for relatively short periods of time.
- ERT-1.E.3 Nitrogen fixation is the process in which atmospheric nitrogen is converted into a form of nitrogen (primarily ammonia) that is available for uptake by plants and that can be synthesized into plant tissue.
- ERT-1.E.4 The atmosphere is the major reservoir of nitrogen.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
氮循环 氮循环(nitrogen cycle)使氮对生命可用。固氮(nitrogen fixation)(由细菌)把大气 $\text{N}_2$ 转换成氨;硝化和同化使它通过生物;反硝化(denitrification)把 $\text{N}_2$ 返回空气。肥料添加活性氮,它能污染水。
氮循环:N$_2$ 被固定成土壤硝酸盐、通过食物传递,并由反硝化返回空气 词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 nitrogen cycle 氮循环 dàn xún huán Nitrogen fixation 固氮 gù dàn 1.6
磷循环
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge ERT-1
Ecosystems are the result of biotic and abiotic interactions.ERT-1.F
Explain the steps and reservoir interactions in the phosphorus cycle.- ERT-1.F.1 The phosphorus cycle is the movement of atoms and molecules containing the element phosphorus between sources and sinks.
- ERT-1.F.2 The major reservoirs of phosphorus in the phosphorus cycle are rock and sediments that contain phosphorus-bearing minerals.
- ERT-1.F.3 There is no atmospheric component in the phosphorus cycle, and the limitations this imposes on the return of phosphorus from the ocean to land make phosphorus naturally scarce in aquatic and many terrestrial ecosystems. In undisturbed ecosystems, phosphorus is the limiting factor in biological systems.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
磷循环(phosphorus cycle)没有大气(气体)阶段——磷通过岩石、土壤、水和生物移动。它慢而常常是增长的限制性营养(limiting nutrient),所以添加的磷(肥料、洗涤剂)能触发藻类爆发。
磷循环:岩石风化成土壤磷酸盐并缓慢沉积回去,没有气体相 词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 phosphorus cycle 磷循环 lín xún huán limiting nutrient 限制性营养 xiàn zhì xìng yíng yǎng 1.7
水循环
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge ERT-1
Ecosystems are the result of biotic and abiotic interactions.ERT-1.G
Explain the steps and reservoir interactions in the hydrologic cycle.- ERT-1.G.1 The hydrologic cycle, which is powered by the sun, is the movement of water in its various solid, liquid, and gaseous phases between sources and sinks.
- ERT-1.G.2 The oceans are the primary reservoir of water at the Earth's surface, with ice caps and groundwater acting as much smaller reservoirs.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
水循环 水循环(water cycle)通过蒸发(evaporation)、蒸腾(transpiration)(从植物)、凝结(condensation)、降水(precipitation)和径流移动水。它分配淡水并塑造气候;人类使用和土地变化能改变它的流动。
水循环:蒸发和蒸腾把水提到空气;降水和径流返回它 词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 water cycle 水循环 shuǐ xún huán evaporation 蒸发 zhēng fā transpiration 蒸腾 zhēng téng 1.8
初级生产力
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge ENG-1
Energy can be converted from one form to another.ENG-1.A
Explain how solar energy is acquired and transferred by living organisms.- ENG-1.A.1 Primary productivity is the rate at which solar energy (sunlight) is converted into organic compounds via photosynthesis over a unit of time.
- ENG-1.A.2 Gross primary productivity is the total rate of photosynthesis in a given area.
- ENG-1.A.3 Net primary productivity is the rate of energy storage by photosynthesizers in a given area, after subtracting the energy lost to respiration.
- ENG-1.A.4 Productivity is measured in units of energy per unit area per unit time (e.g., $\text{kcal/m}^2\text{/yr}$).
- ENG-1.A.5 Most red light is absorbed in the upper 1m of water, and blue light only penetrates deeper than 100m in the clearest water. This affects photosynthesis in aquatic ecosystems, whose photosynthesizers have adapted mechanisms to address the lack of visible light.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
初级生产力(primary productivity)是生产者捕获能量的速率(通常通过光合作用)。总初级生产力(GPP)(gross primary productivity)是捕获的总量;净初级生产力(NPP)(net primary productivity)是生产者自己的呼吸之后剩下的——对生态系统其余部分可用的能量。温暖、湿润、阳光充足的系统(雨林、珊瑚礁)最多产。
Worked example. 若一个草原里的生产者捕获 $20{,}000\ \text{kcal/m}^2/\text{yr}$ 的能量(GPP)并在它们自己的呼吸里燃烧 $8{,}000\ \text{kcal/m}^2/\text{yr}$,那么 $\text{NPP}=\text{GPP}-R=20{,}000-8{,}000=12{,}000\ \text{kcal/m}^2/\text{yr}$。只有那个 NPP ——不是完整的 GPP ——对上面的消费者可用。
探索Explore GPP, respiration and NPP
The energy producers capture (GPP) splits into what they burn for their own respiration $R$ and what is left over as new biomass — $\text{NPP} = \text{GPP} - R$, and useful + wasted always equals the input.
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Primary productivity 初级生产力 chū jí shēng chǎn lì 1.9
营养级
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge ENG-1
Energy can be converted from one form to another.ENG-1.B
Explain how energy flows and matter cycles through trophic levels.- ENG-1.B.1 All ecosystems depend on a continuous inflow of high-quality energy in order to maintain their structure and function of transferring matter between the environment and organisms via biogeochemical cycles.
- ENG-1.B.2 Biogeochemical cycles are essential for life and each cycle demonstrates the conservation of matter.
- ENG-1.B.3 In terrestrial and near-surface marine communities, energy flows from the sun to producers in the lowest trophic levels and then upward to higher trophic levels.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
能量流动与十分之一定律 生物占据营养级(trophic levels):生产者(producers)(制造它们自己的食物),然后初级、次级和三级消费者(consumers),而分解者(decomposers)在每一级回收营养。每一级依赖它下面捕获的能量。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 trophic levels 营养级 yíng yǎng jí producers 生产者 shēng chǎn zhě primary, secondary, and tertiary consumers 消费者 xiāo fèi zhě decomposers 分解者 fēn jiě zhě 1.10
能量流动与10%定律
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge ENG-1
Energy can be converted from one form to another.ENG-1.C
Determine how the energy decreases as it flows through ecosystems.- ENG-1.C.1 The 10% rule approximates that in the transfer of energy from one trophic level to the next, only about 10% of the energy is passed on.
- ENG-1.C.2 The loss of energy that occurs when energy moves from lower to higher trophic levels can be explained through the laws of thermodynamics.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
能量单向流过一个生态系统,并在每次转移时作为热损失。10% 规则:一个营养级只有约 10% 的能量传给下一个;另外的 90% 驱动生命过程并作为热逃逸。这就是为什么食物链是短的而顶级捕食者很少。
Worked example. 从生产者层面的 $12{,}000\ \text{kcal/m}^2/\text{yr}$ 的 NPP 继续,初级消费者接收约 $10\%=1{,}200\ \text{kcal}$、次级消费者 $\approx120\ \text{kcal}$,而三级消费者只有 $\approx12\ \text{kcal}$。三次转移之后能量已经缩小了一千倍——为什么第四或第五营养级很少有足够能量支持它的算术原因。
一个能量金字塔:只有约 10% 的能量传给下一个营养级 探索Explore the 10% rule
Set the energy producers capture and the ecological efficiency, then watch only about a tenth pass to each level up — this is why the apex predator is left with so little and food chains stay short.
1.11
食物链与食物网
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge ENG-1
Energy can be converted from one form to another.ENG-1.D
Describe food chains and food webs, and their constituent members by trophic level.- ENG-1.D.1 A food web is a model of an interlocking pattern of food chains that depicts the flow of energy and nutrients in two or more food chains.
- ENG-1.D.2 Positive and negative feedback loops can each play a role in food webs. When one species is removed from or added to a specific food web, the rest of the food web can be affected.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
一个食物链(food chain)是谁吃谁的一条单一的线;一个食物网(food web)把许多链连接成一幅现实的取食关系图。因为物种相互连接,移除一个(尤其是一个关键种(keystone species))能破坏整个网。
一个食物网连接许多食物链;箭头指向能量流动的方向 词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 food chain 食物链 shí wù liàn food web 食物网 shí wù wǎng keystone species 关键种 guān jiàn zhǒng 1.11
考试技巧
- 记住能量流动并被损失(10% 规则)而物质循环(碳、氮、磷、水)。
- 沿一条食物链应用 10% 规则并知道 NPP = GPP − 呼吸(只有 NPP 对消费者可用)。
- 学每个生物地球化学循环的储库以及人类如何扰动它(燃烧化石燃料添加 CO₂;肥料添加氮/磷)。
- 生产者最丰富,因为如此少的能量到达顶部。
- 在自由回答的数学问题上使用正确的单位并展示你的算术(无计算器——保持数字整齐)。
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2
生物世界：生物多样性
2.1
生物多样性导论
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge ERT-2
Ecosystems have structure and diversity that change over time.ERT-2.A
Explain levels of biodiversity and their importance to ecosystems.- ERT-2.A.1 Biodiversity in an ecosystem includes genetic, species, and habitat diversity.
- ERT-2.A.2 The more genetically diverse a population is, the better it can respond to environmental stressors. Additionally, a population bottleneck can lead to a loss of genetic diversity.
- ERT-2.A.3 Ecosystems that have a larger number of species are more likely to recover from disruptions.
- ERT-2.A.4 Loss of habitat leads to a loss of specialist species, followed by a loss of generalist species. It also leads to reduced numbers of species that have large territorial requirements.
- ERT-2.A.5 Species richness refers to the number of different species found in an ecosystem.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
生物多样性(biodiversity)是生命的多样性,在三个层次测量:
- 遗传多样性(genetic diversity)——一个物种之内基因的多样性。更多遗传多样性意味着一个种群能更好地应对环境压力(environmental stressors);一个种群瓶颈(population bottleneck)(数量的一次急剧下降)扔掉那个多样性并使幸存者脆弱。
- 物种多样性(species diversity)——物种的数量(物种丰富度(species richness))以及个体在它们之间分布得多均匀。
- 栖息地多样性(habitat diversity)——一个区域里栖息地的多样性。
物种更丰富的生态系统更有韧性的(resilient):它们更容易从破坏中恢复,因为多样的物种能在条件变化时填补角色。栖息地丧失以一个可预测的顺序移除物种——特化(specialist)物种(狭窄的需要)先走,然后是更强健的广适性(generalist)物种,而需要大领地的物种随着它们的范围缩小而减少。
生物多样性有三个层次:遗传、物种和栖息地 
A coral reef: high biodiversity concentrates species and ecosystem services in a small area 词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Biodiversity 生物多样性 shēng wù duō yàng xìng environmental stressors 环境压力 huán jìng yā lì population bottleneck 种群瓶颈 zhǒng qún píng jǐng species richness 物种丰富度 wù zhǒng fēng fù dù resilient 有韧性的 yǒu rèn xìng de specialist 特化 tè huà generalist 广适性 guǎng shì xìng Ecosystem services 生态系统服务 shēng tài xì tǒng fú wù 2.2
生态系统服务
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge ERT-2
Ecosystems have structure and diversity that change over time.ERT-2.B
Describe ecosystem services.- ERT-2.B.1 There are four categories of ecosystem services: provisioning, regulating, cultural, and supporting.
ERT-2.C
Describe the results of human disruptions to ecosystem services.- ERT-2.C.1 Anthropogenic activities can disrupt ecosystem services, potentially resulting in economic and ecological consequences.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
生态系统服务(ecosystem services)是自然给人们的免费好处,分四类:
- 供给(provisioning)——产品:食物、淡水、木材、纤维。
- 调节(regulating)——保持条件稳定的过程:气候调节、水过滤、授粉、洪水控制。
- 文化(cultural)——非物质价值:娱乐、美、精神和教育价值。
- 支持(supporting)——使其他成为可能的服务:营养循环、土壤形成、光合作用。
人为的(anthropogenic)(人造成的)活动能扰乱这些服务,带来真实的经济和生态成本——例如,失去授粉者迫使农民为蜜蜂曾经免费做的授粉付钱。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Anthropogenic 人为的 rén wéi de 2.3
岛屿生物地理学
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge ERT-2
Ecosystems have structure and diversity that change over time.ERT-2.D
Describe island biogeography.- ERT-2.D.1 Island biogeography is the study of the ecological relationships and distribution of organisms on islands, and of these organisms' community structures.
- ERT-2.D.2 Islands have been colonized in the past by new species arriving from elsewhere.
ERT-2.E
Describe the role of island biogeography in evolution.- ERT-2.E.1 Many island species have evolved to be specialists versus generalists because of the limited resources, such as food and territory, on most islands. The long-term survival of specialists may be jeopardized if and when invasive species, typically generalists, are introduced and outcompete the specialists.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
岛屿生物地理学 岛屿生物地理学(island biogeography)研究一个岛(或任何孤立的栖息地斑块)容纳多少物种。这个数字稳定在两个速率之间的一个平衡:
- 新物种的迁入(immigration)——对更接近大陆的岛更高。
- 常驻物种的灭绝(extinction)——在更大的岛上更低。
所以大的、近的岛容纳最多物种;小的、遥远的容纳最少。隔离也驱动进化:岛屿物种常常变成特化种因为资源有限,而许多是特有(endemic)的——别处找不到。这使它们脆弱。当一个入侵物种(invasive species)(通常是一个强健的广适性种)到达时,它能在竞争中胜过特化种,它们无处可去。
更大和更近的岛容纳更多物种,平衡迁入与灭绝 词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Island biogeography 岛屿生物地理学 dǎo yǔ shēng wù dì lǐ xué endemic 特有 tè yǒu invasive species 入侵物种 rù qīn wù zhǒng migration 迁徙 qiān xǐ 2.4
生态耐受性
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge ERT-2
Ecosystems have structure and diversity that change over time.ERT-2.F
Describe ecological tolerance.- ERT-2.F.1 Ecological tolerance refers to the range of conditions, such as temperature, salinity, flow rate, and sunlight that an organism can endure before injury or death results.
- ERT-2.F.2 Ecological tolerance can apply to individuals and to species.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
每个物种有一个耐受范围(range of tolerance)——它能生存的条件(温度、盐度、pH、阳光)的跨度。中间附近是一个个体繁荣的最适范围(optimal range);朝向边缘是胁迫区(zones of stress),那里它们生存但难以生长或繁殖;超过极限它们死亡。生态耐受性(ecological tolerance)既适用于一个单一的个体也适用于一个整个物种,而它决定一个生物能住在哪里以及它如何应对变化。
在它的最适范围之内一个物种繁荣;朝向极限它受胁迫,然后不能生存 词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 range of tolerance 耐受范围 nài shòu fàn wéi optimal range 最适范围 zuì shì fàn wéi zones of stress 胁迫区 xié pò qū Ecological tolerance 生态耐受性 shēng tài nài shòu xìng 2.5
生态系统的自然干扰
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge ERT-2
Ecosystems have structure and diversity that change over time.ERT-2.G
Explain how natural disruptions, both short- and long-term, impact an ecosystem.- ERT-2.G.1 Natural disruptions to ecosystems have environmental consequences that may, for a given occurrence, be as great as, or greater than, many human-made disruptions.
- ERT-2.G.2 Earth system processes operate on a range of scales in terms of time. Processes can be periodic, episodic, or random.
- ERT-2.G.3 Earth's climate has changed over geological time for many reasons.
- ERT-2.G.4 Sea level has varied significantly as a result of changes in the amount of glacial ice on Earth over geological time.
- ERT-2.G.5 Major environmental change or upheaval commonly results in large swathes of habitat changes.
- ERT-2.G.6 Wildlife engages in both short- and long-term migration for a variety of reasons, including natural disruptions.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
自然事件跨每个时间尺度扰乱生态系统,而一个单一的自然事件能匹敌或超过一个人造的。地球的过程有三种时机模式:
- 周期性(periodic)——规则的循环(季节、潮汐)。
- 偶发性(episodic)——偶尔的、不规则的事件(火、洪水、火山爆发)。
- 随机(random)——没有模式(一次流星撞击)。
在地质时间里,地球的气候因许多原因转变过,而海平面随着冰川冰的量上升和下降过——每个变化重塑大片的栖息地。野生动物通过迁徙(migration)响应,移动短或长距离以跟随条件。
一场穿过森林的树冠火。火是一种自然的偶发性干扰,许多物种都适应了它 词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Periodic 周期性 zhōu qī xìng Episodic 偶发性 ǒu fā xìng Random 随机 suí jī 2.6
适应
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge ERT-2
Ecosystems have structure and diversity that change over time.ERT-2.H
Describe how organisms adapt to their environment.- ERT-2.H.1 Organisms adapt to their environment over time, both in short- and long-term scales, via incremental changes at the genetic level.
- ERT-2.H.2 Environmental changes, either sudden or gradual, may threaten a species' survival, requiring individuals to alter behaviors, move, or perish.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
一个适应(adaptation)是一个改善在一个环境里生存和繁殖的遗传性状。适应通过自然选择(natural selection)产生——渐进的遗传变化在世代间积累,不是在一个单一的一生之内。当环境变化时,个体必须改变它们的行为、移动,或死亡;若变化来得比一个种群能适应的更快,它减少。一个像火这样的周期性干扰常常是一个健康循环的一部分,而许多物种适应于它(一些松果只在一场火的热量下打开)。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 adaptation 适应 shì yìng natural selection 自然选择 zì rán xuǎn zé 2.7
生态演替
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge ERT-2
Ecosystems have structure and diversity that change over time.ERT-2.I
Describe ecological succession.- ERT-2.I.1 There are two main types of ecological succession: primary and secondary succession.
- ERT-2.I.2 A keystone species in an ecosystem is a species whose activities have a particularly significant role in determining community structure.
- ERT-2.I.3 An indicator species is a plant or animal that, by its presence, abundance, scarcity, or chemical composition, demonstrates that some distinctive aspect of the character or quality of an ecosystem is present.
ERT-2.J
Describe the effect of ecological succession on ecosystems.- ERT-2.J.1 Pioneer members of an early successional species commonly move into unoccupied habitat and over time adapt to its particular conditions, which may result in the origin of new species.
- ERT-2.J.2 Succession in a disturbed ecosystem will affect the total biomass, species richness, and net productivity over time.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
生态演替 生态演替(ecological succession)是一个群落随时间逐渐的、有序的变化:
- 初级演替(primary succession)在没有土壤的裸岩上开始——在一个冰川退却或熔岩冷却之后。像地衣(lichens)这样的先锋物种(pioneer species)最先到达并缓慢地建立土壤。它慢。
地衣直接长在裸岩上。作为先锋物种,它们缓慢地把岩石分解,建立最初薄薄的土壤 - 次级演替(secondary succession)跟随一个使土壤完好的干扰——在一场火或废弃的农业之后——所以它快得多。
演替趋向一个相对稳定的顶极群落(climax community)。两个特殊的角色以与它们数量不成比例的方式塑造一个群落:一个关键种(keystone species),它的活动把群落结构维系在一起(移除它群落就崩溃——海獭控制海胆),和一个指示物种(indicator species),它的存在或健康标志整个生态系统的状况(地衣在空气被污染的地方消失)。
初级演替从裸岩构建;次级演替从幸存的土壤重新生长 Worked example. 一个池塘有 3 种鱼,个体数为 5、3、2($N=10$)。辛普森多样性指数 $=1-\sum\left(\tfrac{n}{N}\right)^2 = 1-\left[(0.5)^2+(0.3)^2+(0.2)^2\right] = 1-0.38 = 0.62$。接近 1 的值意味着高多样性;接近 0 意味着一个物种占主导。再加一个大小均等的第四物种会把指数推得更高。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Ecological succession 生态演替 shēng tài yǎn tì Primary succession 初级演替 chū jí yǎn tì Pioneer species 先锋物种 xiān fēng wù zhǒng lichens 地衣 dì yī Secondary succession 次级演替 cì jí yǎn tì climax community 顶极群落 dǐng jí qún luò keystone species 关键种 guān jiàn zhǒng indicator species 指示物种 zhǐ shì wù zhǒng 2.7
考试技巧
- 在三个层次描述生物多样性:遗传、物种和栖息地,并把更高的多样性与更大的韧性联系起来。
- 当一个栖息地变化时,特化物种(狭窄的需要)比广适性种更脆弱。
- 把初级演替(裸岩、无土壤、慢)与次级(土壤完好、更快)区分开。
- 解释一个关键种(超大的影响)和一个指示物种(标志生态系统健康)。
- 命名四个生态系统服务(供给、调节、文化、支持)并带例子。
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3
种群
3.1
广适性物种与特化物种
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge ERT-3
Populations change over time in reaction to a variety of factors.ERT-3.A
Identify differences between generalist and specialist species.- ERT-3.A.1 Specialist species tend to be advantaged in habitats that remain constant, while generalist species tend to be advantaged in habitats that are changing.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
一个广适性物种(generalist)能住在许多栖息地并吃许多食物(浣熊、蟑螂)——灵活,所以它很好地应对变化。一个狭适性物种(specialist)需要特定的条件或食物(熊猫、考拉)——在一个稳定的栖息地里高效但若那个栖息地变化就很脆弱。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 generalist 广适性物种 guǎng shì xìng wù zhǒng specialist 狭适性物种 xiá shì xìng wù zhǒng 3.2
K对策物种与r对策物种
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge ERT-3
Populations change over time in reaction to a variety of factors.ERT-3.B
Identify differences between K- and r-selected species.- ERT-3.B.1 K-selected species tend to be large, have few offspring per reproduction event, live in stable environments, expend significant energy for each offspring, mature after many years of extended youth and parental care, have long life spans/life expectancy, and reproduce more than once in their lifetime. Competition for resources in K-selected species' habitats is usually relatively high.
- ERT-3.B.2 r-selected species tend to be small, have many offspring, expend or invest minimal energy for each offspring, mature early, have short life spans, and may reproduce only once in their lifetime. Competition for resources in r-selected species' habitats is typically relatively low.
- ERT-3.B.3 Biotic potential refers to the maximum reproductive rate of a population in ideal conditions.
- ERT-3.B.4 Many species have reproductive strategies that are not uniquely r-selected or K-selected, or they change in different conditions at different times.
- ERT-3.B.5 K-selected species are typically more adversely affected by invasive species than r-selected species, which are minimally affected by invasive species. Most invasive species are r-selected species.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
两种繁殖策略:
- $r$ 选择($r$-selected)物种以很少的照顾产生许多后代、快速成熟,并有短的生命(昆虫、杂草)。它们快速定殖并繁荣与崩溃。
- $K$ 选择($K$-selected)物种以很多照顾产生很少后代、缓慢成熟,并活得长(大象、人)。它们在稳定的环境里接近环境容纳量时做得好,但从损失中恢复得慢。
一头大象和它唯一的幼崽:K 选择物种后代很少,但对每一个都投入很多,所以数量下降后恢复得慢 
A young rabbit: r-selected species produce many offspring quickly with little parental investment 3.3
存活曲线
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge ERT-3
Populations change over time in reaction to a variety of factors.ERT-3.C
Explain survivorship curves.- ERT-3.C.1 A survivorship curve is a line that displays the relative survival rates of a cohort—a group of individuals of the same age—in a population, from birth to the maximum age reached by any one cohort member. There are Type I, Type II, and Type III curves.
- ERT-3.C.2 Survivorship curves differ for K-selected and r-selected species, with K-selected species typically following a Type I or Type II curve and r-selected species following a Type III curve.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
一条存活曲线(survivorship curve)画出多少个体在每个年龄存活(在一个对数尺度上)。类型 I(人):大多数存活到老年,然后死亡——一条凸曲线。类型 II(许多鸟):在所有年龄一个恒定的死亡率——一条直线。类型 III($r$ 选择:鱼、昆虫):大多数年幼死亡,少数存活——一条凹曲线。
对数尺度上的类型 I、II 和 III 存活曲线 词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 survivorship curve 存活曲线 cún huó qū xiàn 3.4
环境容纳量
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge ERT-3
Populations change over time in reaction to a variety of factors.ERT-3.D
Describe carrying capacity.- ERT-3.D.1 When a population exceeds its carrying capacity (carrying capacity can be denoted as K), overshoot occurs. There are environmental impacts of population overshoot, including resource depletion.
ERT-3.E
Describe the impact of carrying capacity on ecosystems.- ERT-3.E.1 A major ecological effect of population overshoot is dieback of the population (often severe to catastrophic) because the lack of available resources leads to famine, disease, and/or conflict.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
捕食者与猎物的数量周期波动 指数增长与逻辑斯蒂增长 环境容纳量(carrying capacity)($K$)是一个环境能长期支持的最大种群。一个种群可能在资源暂时充足时超越(overshoot)$K$,然后随着资源耗尽而崩溃(crash)(回落(dieback))。种群倾向于围绕 $K$ 波动。
种群增长在环境的环境容纳量处趋平 
A deer herd: when a population approaches carrying capacity, resources limit further growth 探索Growth up to carrying capacity
A population grows toward the carrying capacity $K$ its resources can support, then levels off. Push the growth rate up and watch it overshoot and settle.
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 carrying capacity 环境容纳量 huán jìng róng nà liàng 3.5
种群增长与资源可获得性
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge ERT-3
Populations change over time in reaction to a variety of factors.ERT-3.F
Explain how resource availability affects population growth.- ERT-3.F.1 Population growth is limited by environmental factors, especially by the available resources and space.
- ERT-3.F.2 Resource availability and the total resource base are limited and finite over all scales of time.
- ERT-3.F.3 When the resources needed by a population for growth are abundant, population growth usually accelerates.
- ERT-3.F.4 When the resource base of a population shrinks, the increased potential for unequal distribution of resources will ultimately result in increased mortality, decreased fecundity, or both, resulting in population growth declining to, or below, carrying capacity.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
有充足的资源一个种群指数增长(exponentially)($J$ 曲线)。随着资源变得有限,增长减慢到逻辑斯蒂增长(logistic)($S$ 曲线),在 $K$ 处趋平。限制因素(limiting factors)(食物、水、空间、疾病)设定上限。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 exponentially 指数增长 zhǐ shù zēng zhǎng logistic 逻辑斯蒂增长 luó jí sī dì zēng zhǎng Limiting factors 限制因素 xiàn zhì yīn sù 3.6
年龄结构图
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge EIN-1
Human populations change in reaction to a variety of factors, including social and cultural factors.EIN-1.A
Explain age structure diagrams.- EIN-1.A.1 Population growth rates can be interpreted from age structure diagrams by the shape of the structure.
- EIN-1.A.2 A rapidly growing population will, as a rule, have a higher proportion of younger people compared to stable or declining populations.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
一个年龄结构图(age-structure diagram)显示一个种群在每个年龄组的比例。一个宽的基座(许多年轻人)预测快速增长;均匀的柱预测一个稳定的种群;一个窄的基座预测衰退。它们预测一个国家的未来人口。
一个发展中国家和一个发达国家的人口金字塔 词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 age-structure diagram 年龄结构图 nián líng jié gòu tú 3.7
总和生育率
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge EIN-1
Human populations change in reaction to a variety of factors, including social and cultural factors.EIN-1.B
Explain factors that affect total fertility rate in human populations.- EIN-1.B.1 Total fertility rate (TFR) is affected by the age at which females have their first child, educational opportunities for females, access to family planning, and government acts and policies.
- EIN-1.B.2 If fertility rate is at replacement levels, a population is considered relatively stable.
- EIN-1.B.3 Factors associated with infant mortality rates include whether mothers have access to good healthcare and nutrition. Changes in these factors can lead to changes in infant mortality rates over time.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
总生育率(total fertility rate)(TFR)是每个妇女的平均孩子数。约 2.1 的一个替代水平(replacement level)保持一个种群稳定;高于它增长,低于它收缩。TFR 随着教育、对计划生育的获取和更低的婴儿死亡率而下降。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 total fertility rate 总生育率 zǒng shēng yù lǜ 3.8
人口动态
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge EIN-1
Human populations change in reaction to a variety of factors, including social and cultural factors.EIN-1.C.1
Explain how human populations experience growth and decline.- EIN-1.C.1 Birth rates, infant mortality rates, and overall death rates, access to family planning, access to good nutrition, access to education, and postponement of marriage all affect whether a human population is growing or declining.
- EIN-1.C.2 Factors limiting global human population include the Earth's carrying capacity and the basic factors that limit human population growth as set forth by Malthusian theory.
- EIN-1.C.3 Population growth can be affected by both density-independent factors, such as major storms, fires, heat waves, or droughts, and density-dependent factors, such as access to clean water and air, food availability, disease transmission, or territory size.
- EIN-1.C.4 The rule of 70 states that dividing the number 70 by the percentage population growth rate approximates the population's doubling time.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
人类人口增长取决于出生率、死亡率和移民。快速增长使资源紧张并增加生态足迹(ecological footprint)。降低出生率的因素包括教育(尤其是妇女的)、城市化和经济发展。
Worked example. 一个国家有每 $1000$ 人 $30$ 的出生率和每 $1000$ 人 $10$ 的死亡率。自然增长率是每年 $\dfrac{30-10}{10}=2.0\%$(把千分差除以 $10$ 把它转换成一个百分比)。按 70 法则(rule of 70),人口在约 $\dfrac{70}{2.0}=35$ 年翻倍。若发展把增长率削减到 $1.0\%$,翻倍时间会延长到 $\dfrac{70}{1.0}=70$ 年。
A crowded city crossing: human population dynamics depend on birth rates, death rates and migration 词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 ecological footprint 生态足迹 shēng tài zú jì 3.9
人口转变
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge EIN-1
Human populations change in reaction to a variety of factors, including social and cultural factors.EIN-1.D
Define the demographic transition.- EIN-1.D.1 The demographic transition refers to the transition from high to lower birth and death rates in a country or region as development occurs and that country moves from a pre-industrial to an industrialized economic system. This transition is typically demonstrated through a four-stage demographic transition model (DTM).
- EIN-1.D.2 Characteristics of developing countries include higher infant mortality rates and more children in the workforce than developed countries.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
人口转型(demographic transition)描述一个国家的增长在它发展时如何变化,分阶段:(1) 高出生率和死亡率(慢增长);(2) 死亡率下降(快速增长);(3) 出生率下降(减慢的增长);(4) 两者都低(稳定)。发达国家在较后的阶段;许多发展中国家在快速增长的阶段。
人口转型的四个阶段 人口在阶段 2 和 3 增长最快——一个仍然高的出生率和一个已经下降的死亡率之间的差距。那个滞后是为什么一个国家的人口在它死亡率下降之后长时间继续攀升。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 demographic transition 人口转型 rén kǒu zhuǎn xíng 3.9
考试技巧
- 用 70 法则:翻倍时间 ≈ 70 ÷ 增长率(%);一个增长率是(出生 − 死亡)每 1000 ÷ 10。
- 读年龄结构图:一个宽的基座预测快速增长,均匀的柱一个稳定的种群。
- 对比 r 选择(许多后代、很少照顾)和 K 选择(很少、很多照顾)策略。
- 知道人口转型阶段以及什么降低出生率(教育、计划生育、发展)。
- 一个下降的增长率仍然意味着增长——只有当死亡超过出生时种群才收缩。
-
4
地球系统与资源
4.1
板块构造
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge ERT-4
Earth's systems interact, resulting in a state of balance over time.ERT-4.A
Describe the geological changes and events that occur at convergent, divergent, and transform plate boundaries.- ERT-4.A.1 Convergent boundaries can result in the creation of mountains, island arcs, earthquakes, and volcanoes.
- ERT-4.A.2 Divergent boundaries can result in seafloor spreading, rift valleys, volcanoes, and earthquakes.
- ERT-4.A.3 Transform boundaries can result in earthquakes.
- ERT-4.A.4 Maps that show the global distribution of plate boundaries can be used to determine the location of volcanoes, island arcs, earthquakes, hot spots, and faults.
- ERT-4.A.5 An earthquake occurs when stress overcomes a locked fault, releasing stored energy.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
三种板块边界 地球的地壳破裂成在地幔上缓慢移动的板块(plates)——板块构造(plate tectonics)。在离散(divergent)边界板块分开(新地壳);在汇聚(convergent)它们碰撞(山脉、火山、地震);在转换(transform)它们相互滑过(地震)。边界造成灾害但也造成火山土壤和矿产资源。
冰岛一座在板块边界喷发的火山。在分开的板块之间上升的熔岩形成新的地壳 词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 plates 板块 bǎn kuài plate tectonics 板块构造 bǎn kuài gòu zào 4.2
土壤形成与侵蚀
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge ERT-4
Earth's systems interact, resulting in a state of balance over time.ERT-4.B
Describe the characteristics and formation of soil.- ERT-4.B.1 Soils are formed when parent material is weathered, transported, and deposited.
- ERT-4.B.2 Soils are generally categorized by horizons based on their composition and organic material.
- ERT-4.B.3 Soils can be eroded by winds or water. Protecting soils can protect water quality as soils effectively filter and clean water that moves through them.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
土壤(soil)随着岩石风化(weathers)和有机物积累而缓慢形成。侵蚀(erosion)是风和水对土壤的移除,由移除植被(农业、森林砍伐、过度放牧)加速。因为土壤形成得如此缓慢,比形成更快的侵蚀耗尽一种重要资源。
Soil horizons form over time as parent rock weathers; erosion can strip topsoil and reverse that progress 词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Soil 土壤 tǔ rǎng weathers 风化 fēng huà Erosion 侵蚀 qīn shí horizons 土层 tǔ céng 4.3
土壤组成与性质
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge ERT-4
Earth's systems interact, resulting in a state of balance over time.ERT-4.C
Describe similarities and differences between properties of different soil types.- ERT-4.C.1 Water holding capacity—the total amount of water soil can hold—varies with different soil types. Water retention contributes to land productivity and fertility of soils.
- ERT-4.C.2 The particle size and composition of each soil horizon can affect the porosity, permeability, and fertility of the soil.
- ERT-4.C.3 There are a variety of methods to test the chemical, physical, and biological properties of soil that can aid in a variety of decisions, such as irrigation and fertilizer requirements.
- ERT-4.C.4 A soil texture triangle is a diagram that allows for the identification and comparison of soil types based on their percentage of clay, silt, and sand.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
土壤是沙、粉沙和黏土(它的质地(texture))加上有机物、水和空气的一个混合,分层在土层(horizons)里。质地控制孔隙度(porosity)和渗透性(permeability)——土壤多好地保持水和营养。壤土(loam)(一个平衡的混合)对植物最好。
一个挖穿土壤的坑显示它的土层:深色的有机表土在上,然后是较浅的矿物层,再下面是碎岩(卷尺作比例尺) 词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 texture 质地 zhì dì porosity 孔隙度 kǒng xì dù permeability 渗透性 shèn tòu xìng 4.4
地球大气层
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge ERT-4
Earth's systems interact, resulting in a state of balance over time.ERT-4.D
Describe the structure and composition of the Earth's atmosphere.- ERT-4.D.1 The atmosphere is made up of major gases, each with its own relative abundance.
- ERT-4.D.2 The layers of the atmosphere are based on temperature gradients and include the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
大气层(atmosphere)是分层的:对流层(troposphere)(天气,我们住的地方)、平流层(stratosphere)(容纳臭氧层),和更高的层。它大多是氮和氧,带调节温度的微量气体(包括温室气体)。
清洁干燥的空气约是 78% 氮、21% 氧,和 1% 其他气体 词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 atmosphere 大气层 dà qì céng troposphere 对流层 duì liú céng stratosphere 平流层 píng liú céng 4.5
全球风带
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge ERT-4
Earth's systems interact, resulting in a state of balance over time.ERT-4.E
Explain how environmental factors can result in atmospheric circulation.- ERT-4.E.1 Global wind patterns primarily result from the most intense solar radiation arriving at the equator, resulting in density differences and the Coriolis effect.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
全球风带 不均匀的太阳加热驱动全球风带(global wind patterns)。温暖的空气在赤道上升并在约 30° 下沉,创造对流环流(convection cells)(哈德利、费雷尔、极地)和盛行风(信风、西风)。旋转的地球使风偏转——科里奥利效应(Coriolis effect)——塑造天气和气候。
每个半球三个环流环流设定盛行的表面风 词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 global wind patterns 全球风带 quán qiú fēng dài convection cells 对流环流 duì liú huán liú Coriolis effect 科里奥利效应 kē lǐ ào lì xiào yìng 4.6
流域
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge ERT-4
Earth's systems interact, resulting in a state of balance over time.ERT-4.F
Describe the characteristics of a watershed.- ERT-4.F.1 Characteristics of a given watershed include its area, length, slope, soil, vegetation types, and divides with adjoining watersheds.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
一个流域(watershed)是流向一个共同水体的所有土地。土地上发生的一切——农业、铺路、污染——影响它流入的水,所以流域是管理水质的关键单位。
A waterfall in a river basin: a watershed is the land that drains into a stream or lake 词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 watershed 流域 liú yù 4.7
太阳辐射与地球的季节
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge ENG-2
Most of the Earth's atmospheric processes are driven by input of energy from the sun.ENG-2.A
Explain how the sun's energy affects the Earth's surface.- ENG-2.A.1 Incoming solar radiation (insolation) is the Earth's main source of energy and is dependent on season and latitude.
- ENG-2.A.2 The angle of the sun's rays determines the intensity of the solar radiation. Due to the shape of the Earth, the latitude that is directly horizontal to the solar radiation receives the most intensity.
- ENG-2.A.3 The highest solar radiation per unit area is received at the equator and decreases toward the poles.
- ENG-2.A.4 The solar radiation received at a location on the Earth's surface varies seasonally, with the most radiation received during the location's longest summer day and the least on the shortest winter day.
- ENG-2.A.5 The tilt of Earth's axis of rotation causes the Earth's seasons and the number of hours of daylight in a particular location on the Earth's surface.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
季节来自地球的倾斜轴(tilted axis)(约 23.5°),不是它离太阳的距离。朝向太阳倾斜的半球得到更直接的阳光和更长的白天(夏季)。倾斜也使热带(tropics)全年温暖而极地(poles)寒冷。
地球轴的倾斜造成季节 4.8
地球的地理与气候
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge ENG-2
Most of the Earth's atmospheric processes are driven by input of energy from the sun.ENG-2.B
Describe how the Earth's geography affects weather and climate.- ENG-2.B.1 Weather and climate are affected not only by the sun's energy but by geologic and geographic factors, such as mountains and ocean temperature.
- ENG-2.B.2 A rain shadow is a region of land that has become drier because a higher elevation area blocks precipitation from reaching the land.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
地理塑造气候:纬度(latitude)(阳光角度)、海拔(elevation)(随高度更凉)、与海洋(oceans)的接近程度(缓和温度),和山脉造成一个雨影(rain shadow)(潮湿的迎风侧、干燥的背风侧)。这些因素决定哪个生物群系在哪里形成。
Desert dunes: latitude, altitude and ocean currents shape Earth's climate regions 词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 rain shadow 雨影 yǔ yǐng 4.9
厄尔尼诺与拉尼娜
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge ENG-2
Most of the Earth's atmospheric processes are driven by input of energy from the sun.ENG-2.C
Describe the environmental changes and effects that result from El Niño or La Niña events (El Niño–Southern Oscillation).- ENG-2.C.1 El Niño and La Niña are phenomena associated with changing ocean surface temperatures in the Pacific Ocean. These phenomena can cause global changes to rainfall, wind, and ocean circulation patterns.
- ENG-2.C.2 El Niño and La Niña are influenced by geological and geographic factors and can affect different locations in different ways.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
厄尔尼诺与拉尼娜 厄尔尼诺(El Niño)和拉尼娜(La Niña)是太平洋温度和风的周期性转变。厄尔尼诺(温暖的东太平洋)和拉尼娜(凉爽的东太平洋)在全世界改变降雨、风暴和渔业——例如,一些地区的洪水和另一些的干旱。
Worked example. 一个构造板块每年移动 5 厘米。它在 100 万年里移动多远?$5\ \text{cm/yr}\times 10^{6}\ \text{yr}=5\times10^{6}\ \text{cm}=50\ \text{km}$。微小的年移动在地质时间里累积成海盆尺度的距离——正是这个缓慢的速率打开海洋并造起山脉。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 El Niño 厄尔尼诺 è ěr ní nuò La Niña 拉尼娜 lā ní nà 4.9
考试技巧
- 季节来自地球的倾斜,不是它离太阳的距离。
- 土壤形成得很慢,所以比形成更快的侵蚀永久地耗尽它;知道土壤质地(沙/粉沙/黏土)和土层。
- 从不均匀的加热 + 科里奥利效应解释全球风带,以及一个雨影(潮湿的迎风、干燥的背风)。
- 命名大气层(对流层 = 天气,平流层 = 臭氧)和空气组成(~78% N₂、21% O₂)。
- 厄尔尼诺 / 拉尼娜是改变全世界降雨的太平洋温度转变。
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5
土地与水资源利用
5.1
公地悲剧
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge EIN-2
When humans use natural resources, they alter natural systems.EIN-2.A
Explain the concept of the tragedy of the commons.- EIN-2.A.1 The tragedy of the commons suggests that individuals will use shared resources in their own self-interest rather than in keeping with the common good, thereby depleting the resources.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
公地悲剧 公地悲剧(tragedy of the commons):当一种资源被共享并对所有人开放时(一个渔场、大气、一片牧场),每个用户为私人利益尽可能多地拿,而共享的资源为每个人被过度使用和退化。解决方案需要监管、私有化或合作管理。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 tragedy of the commons 公地悲剧 gōng dì bēi jù 5.2
皆伐
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge EIN-2
When humans use natural resources, they alter natural systems.EIN-2.B
Describe the effect of clearcutting on forests.- EIN-2.B.1 Clearcutting can be economically advantageous but leads to soil erosion, increased soil and stream temperatures, and flooding.
- EIN-2.B.2 Forests contain trees that absorb pollutants and store carbon dioxide. The cutting and burning of trees releases carbon dioxide and contributes to climate change.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
皆伐(clearcutting)一次移除一个区域的所有树木。它便宜而高效但造成侵蚀(erosion)、栖息地和生物多样性的丧失、洪水,和更高的土壤温度。恢复缓慢,而附近的溪流受泥沙之苦。
一片新的皆伐地:那一条里的每棵树都被一次砍光,留下裸露的土壤,容易侵蚀并被冲进溪流 
森林砍伐降低生物多样性并造成侵蚀、洪水和更高的 CO2 词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Clearcutting 皆伐 jiē fá erosion 侵蚀 qīn shí 5.3
绿色革命
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge EIN-2
When humans use natural resources, they alter natural systems.EIN-2.C
Describe changes in agricultural practices.- EIN-2.C.1 The Green Revolution started a shift to new agricultural strategies and practices in order to increase food production, with both positive and negative results. Some of these strategies and methods are mechanization, genetically modified organisms (GMOs), fertilization, irrigation, and the use of pesticides.
- EIN-2.C.2 Mechanization of farming can increase profits and efficiency for farms. It can also increase reliance on fossil fuels.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
绿色革命(Green Revolution)用高产种子、化肥(synthetic fertilizers)、农药(pesticides)、灌溉和机械化提升作物产量。它养活了数十亿人但带来成本:土壤退化、水污染、高能量和水使用,和作物多样性的丧失(单一栽培(monoculture))。
NPK 肥料供应植物最需要的三种元素 词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Green Revolution 绿色革命 lǜ sè gé mìng synthetic fertilizers 化肥 huà féi pesticides 农药 nóng yào monoculture 单一栽培 dān yī zāi péi 5.4
农业实践的影响
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge EIN-2
When humans use natural resources, they alter natural systems.EIN-2.D
Describe agricultural practices that cause environmental damage.- EIN-2.D.1 Agricultural practices that can cause environmental damage include tilling, slash-and-burn farming, and the use of fertilizers.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
像耕作、单一栽培和大量肥料/农药使用这样的做法造成侵蚀、土壤盐碱化(soil salinization)、营养径流(造成富营养化(eutrophication)),和生物多样性的丧失。可持续的方法减少这些害处。
Intensive farmland: tillage, fertilisers and monocultures raise yields but can erode soil and pollute water 词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 soil salinization 土壤盐碱化 tǔ rǎng yán jiǎn huà eutrophication 富营养化 fù yíng yǎng huà 5.5
灌溉方法
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge EIN-2
When humans use natural resources, they alter natural systems.EIN-2.E
Describe different methods of irrigation.- EIN-2.E.1 The largest human use of freshwater is for irrigation (70%).
- EIN-2.E.2 Types of irrigation include drip irrigation, flood irrigation, furrow irrigation, drip irrigation, and spray irrigation.
EIN-2.F
Describe the benefits and drawbacks of different methods of irrigation.- EIN-2.F.1 Waterlogging occurs when too much water is left to sit in the soil, which raises the water table of groundwater and inhibits plants' ability to absorb oxygen through their roots.
- EIN-2.F.2 Furrow irrigation involves cutting furrows between crop rows and filling them with water. This system is inexpensive, but about 1/3 of the water is lost to evaporation and runoff.
- EIN-2.F.3 Flood irrigation involves flooding an agricultural field with water. This system sees about 20% of the water lost to evaporation and runoff. This can also lead to waterlogging of the soil.
- EIN-2.F.4 Spray irrigation involves pumping ground water into spray nozzles across an agricultural field. This system is more efficient than flood and furrow irrigation, with only 1/4 or less of the water lost to evaporation or runoff. However, spray systems are more expensive than flood and furrow irrigation, and also requires energy to run.
- EIN-2.F.5 Drip irrigation uses perforated hoses to release small amounts of water to plant roots. This system is the most efficient, with only about 5% of water lost to evaporation and runoff. However, this system is expensive and so is not often used.
- EIN-2.F.6 Salinization occurs when the salts in groundwater remain in the soil after the water evaporates. Over time, salinization can make soil toxic to plants.
- EIN-2.F.7 Aquifers can be severely depleted if overused for agricultural irrigation, as has happened to the Ogallala Aquifer in the central United States.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
灌溉(irrigation)给作物供水,而且它是人类淡水的最大用途 —— 约占 70%,这是考试要你知道的一个数字。滴(drip)灌是最高效的(最少蒸发);漫(flood)和喷(spray)方法浪费更多水并能造成渍水(waterlogging)和盐碱化(salinization),因为蒸发留下盐。过度灌溉耗尽含水层(aquifers)(地下的淡水储存)的速度比它们补充的更快。
灌溉方法比较:滴灌浪费最少水,漫灌最多 词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Irrigation 灌溉 guàn gài aquifers 含水层 hán shuǐ céng 5.6
病虫害防治方法
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge EIN-2
When humans use natural resources, they alter natural systems.EIN-2.G
Describe the benefits and drawbacks of different methods of pest control.- EIN-2.G.1 One consequence of using common pest-control methods such as pesticides, herbicides, fungicides, rodenticides, and insecticides is that organisms can become resistant to them through artificial selection. Pest control decreases crop damage by pest and increases crop yields.
- EIN-2.G.2 Crops can be genetically engineered to increase their resistance to pests and diseases. However, using genetically engineered crops in planting or other ways can lead to loss of genetic diversity of that particular crop.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
农药(pesticides)杀死害虫并提高产量,但造成问题:它们伤害非目标物种、污染水,并驱动抗药性(pesticide resistance)(幸存者繁殖,所以需要更强的剂量——"农药跑步机")。
Aerial pesticide spraying: chemical pest control can protect yields but also harm non-target species and create resistant pests 词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 pesticide resistance 抗药性 kàng yào xìng 5.7
肉类生产方法
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge EIN-2
When humans use natural resources, they alter natural systems.EIN-2.H
Identify different methods of meat production.- EIN-2.H.1 Methods of meat production include concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs), also called feedlots, and free-range grazing.
EIN-2.I
Describe the benefits and drawbacks of different methods of meat production.- EIN-2.I.1 Meat production is less efficient than agriculture; it takes approximately 20 times more land to produce the same amount of calories from meat as from plants.
- EIN-2.I.2 Concentrated animal feeding operation (CAFOs) are used as a way to quickly get livestock ready for slaughter. They tend to be crowded, and animals are fed grains or feed that are not as suitable as grass. Additionally, feedlots generate a large amount of organic waste, which can contaminate ground and surface water. The use of feedlots are less expensive than other methods, which can keep costs to consumers down.
- EIN-2.I.3 Free range grazing allows animals to graze on grass during their entire lifecycle. Meat from free range animals tends to be free from antibiotics and other chemicals used in feedlots. Organic waste from these animals acts as fertilizer. Free range grazing requires large areas of land and the meat produced is more expensive for consumers.
- EIN-2.I.4 Overgrazing occurs when too many animals feed on a particular area of land. Overgrazing causes loss of vegetation, which leads to soil erosion.
- EIN-2.I.5 Overgrazing can cause desertification. Desertification is the degradation of low precipitation regions toward being increasingly arid until they become deserts.
- EIN-2.I.6 Less consumption of meat could reduce $\text{CO}_2$, methane, and $\text{N}_2\text{O}$ emissions; conserve water; reduce the use of antibiotics and growth hormones; and improve topsoil.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
生产肉,尤其是在集中动物饲养作业(concentrated animal feeding operations)(CAFOs)里,使用大量的土地、水、饲料和能量,并产生废物和甲烷(methane)(一种温室气体)。肉比植物食物远不那么能量高效,因为 10% 规则——更高的营养级浪费更多能量。
过度放牧(overgrazing) - 让牲畜吃掉植被的速度快于它重新长出的速度 - 剥去了土壤的保护覆盖。在干旱的土地上,这能驱动荒漠化(desertification):低降水地区退化直到变成沙漠。可持续的办法是轮牧(rotational grazing),定期把牲畜在不同牧场之间轮换,这样没有哪一块地被啃到光秃。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 methane 甲烷 jiǎ wán Overgrazing 过度放牧 guò dù fàng mù desertification 荒漠化 huāng mò huà rotational grazing 轮牧 lún mù 5.8
过度捕捞的影响
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge EIN-2
When humans use natural resources, they alter natural systems.EIN-2.J
Describe causes of and problems related to overfishing.- EIN-2.J.1 Overfishing has led to the extreme scarcity of some fish species, which can lessen biodiversity in aquatic systems and harm people who depend on fishing for food and commerce.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
过度捕捞(overfishing)移除鱼的速度比它们繁殖更快,使种群崩溃(像鳕鱼)。兼捕(bycatch)(不想要的捕获)和破坏性的方法(底拖网)损害生态系统。它是开阔海洋里一个经典的公地悲剧。
探索Push a fish stock past its limit
A population grows toward its carrying capacity $K$, but harvesting faster than it can breed collapses the stock. Raise the pressure and watch the population crash.
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Overfishing 过度捕捞 guò dù bǔ lāo 5.9
采矿的影响
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge EIN-2
When humans use natural resources, they alter natural systems.EIN-2.K
Describe natural resource extraction through mining.- EIN-2.K.1 As the more accessible ores are mined to depletion, mining operations are forced to access lower grade ores. Accessing these ores requires increased use of resources that can cause increased waste and pollution.
- EIN-2.K.2 Surface mining is the removal of large portions of soil and rock, called overburden, in order to access the ore underneath. An example is strip mining, which removes the vegetation from an area, making the area more susceptible to erosion.
EIN-2.L
Describe ecological and economic impacts of natural resource extraction through mining.- EIN-2.L.1 Mining wastes include the soil and rocks that are moved to gain access to the ore and the waste, called slag and tailings that remain when the minerals have been removed from the ore. Mining helps to provide low cost energy and material necessary to make products. The mining of coal can destroy habitats, contaminate ground water, and release dust particles and methane.
- EIN-2.L.2 As coal reserves get smaller, due to a lack of easily accessible reserves, it becomes necessary to access coal through subsurface mining, which is very expensive.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
采矿(mining)提取矿物和燃料但扰动土地,尤其是露天(条带)采矿(surface (strip) mining)和山顶移除(mountaintop removal)。影响包括栖息地破坏、酸性矿山废水(acid mine drainage),和污染水的有毒尾矿。
当容易开采的矿床用完后,采矿转入地下,即地下开采(subsurface mining),它昂贵且危险得多 - 随着煤的易采储量缩小,同样的模式也适用于煤。
一座露天矿(open-pit mine):台阶被切得越来越宽、越来越深以够到矿石,破坏栖息地并暴露出污染水的岩石 词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Mining 采矿 cǎi kuàng acid mine drainage 酸性矿山废水 suān xìng kuàng shān fèi shuǐ subsurface mining 地下开采 dì xià kāi cǎi open-pit mine 露天矿 lù tiān kuàng 5.10
城市化的影响
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge EIN-2
When humans use natural resources, they alter natural systems.EIN-2.M
Describe the effects of urbanization on the environment.- EIN-2.M.1 Urbanization can lead to depletion of resources and saltwater intrusion in the hydrologic cycle.
- EIN-2.M.2 Urbanization, through the burning of fossil fuels and landfills, affects the carbon cycle by increasing the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
- EIN-2.M.3 Impervious surfaces are human-made structures—such as roads, buildings, sidewalks, and parking lots—that do not allow water to reach the soil, leading to flooding.
- EIN-2.M.4 Urban sprawl is the change in population distribution from high population density areas to low density suburbs that spread into rural lands, leading to potential environmental problems.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
城市化(urbanization)用不透水面(impervious surfaces)(道路、建筑)替换自然土地,增加径流和洪水、创造热岛(urban heat islands),并产生污染和废物。城市蔓延(urban sprawl)消耗农田和栖息地。它还给水循环(hydrologic cycle)带来压力:一座密集的城市耗尽当地的水,而在沿海地区大量抽取地下水会把海水引入含水层 —— 海水入侵(saltwater intrusion)—— 这可能毁掉一处淡水供应。
城市扩张:住房在曾经的农田上铺开,把土壤封住,所以雨水径流而不下渗 词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Urbanization 城市化 chéng shì huà impervious surfaces 不透水面 bù tòu shuǐ miàn urban heat islands 热岛 rè dǎo hydrologic cycle 水循环 shuǐ xún huán saltwater intrusion 海水入侵 hǎi shuǐ rù qīn urban sprawl 城市扩张 chéng shì kuò zhāng 5.11
生态足迹
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge EIN-2
When humans use natural resources, they alter natural systems.EIN-2.N
Explain the variables measured in an ecological footprint.- EIN-2.N.1 Ecological footprints compare resource demands and waste production required for an individual or a society.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
一个生态足迹(ecological footprint)测量一个人或种群需要多少土地和水来供应资源和吸收废物。富有的、高消费的国家有大得多的足迹。若每个人的足迹超过地球的容量,资源正被不可持续地使用。
Worked example. 地球每人提供大约 $1.6$ 全球公顷(gha)的生物承载力(biocapacity)。若平均人的足迹是 $2.7\ \text{gha}$,人类正在需求约 $\tfrac{2.7}{1.6}\approx1.7$ 个地球——生活超过地球能更新的。更糟的是,若每个人都像一个高收入国家那样以每人 $8\ \text{gha}$ 消费,它会需要 $\tfrac{8}{1.6}=5$ 个地球——正是为什么每人足迹是关键的可持续性尺度。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 ecological footprint 生态足迹 shēng tài zú jì 5.12
可持续性导论
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge STB-1
Humans can mitigate their impact on land and water resources through sustainable use.STB-1.A
Explain the concept of sustainability.- STB-1.A.1 Sustainability refers to humans living on Earth and their use of resources without depletion of the resources for future generations. Environmental indicators that can guide humans to sustainability include biological diversity, food production, average global surface temperatures and $\text{CO}_2$ concentrations, human population, and resource depletion.
- STB-1.A.2 Sustainable yield is the amount of a renewable resource that can be taken without reducing the available supply.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
可持续性(sustainability)意味着满足当前的需要而不伤害未来世代满足他们的能力。它平衡环境健康、经济可行性和社会公平,使用资源不快于它们能被替换。
Wind turbines on farmland: sustainable resource use meets present needs without locking out future generations 词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Sustainability 可持续性 kě chí xù xìng 5.13
减少城市径流的方法
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge STB-1
Humans can mitigate their impact on land and water resources through sustainable use.STB-1.B
Describe methods for mitigating problems related to urban runoff.- STB-1.B.1 Methods to increase water infiltration include replacing traditional pavement with permeable pavement, planting trees, increased use of public transportation, and building up, not out.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
用透水路面(permeable pavement)、雨水花园(rain gardens)和绿色屋顶(green roofs)、滞留池,和保留的植被减少径流。这些让水浸入,过滤污染物并补充地下水而不是淹没溪流。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 permeable pavement 透水路面 tòu shuǐ lù miàn green roofs 绿色屋顶 lǜ sè wū dǐng 5.14
病虫害综合治理
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge STB-1
Humans can mitigate their impact on land and water resources through sustainable use.STB-1.C
Describe integrated pest management.- STB-1.C.1 Integrated pest management (IPM) is a combination of methods used to effectively control pest species while minimizing the disruption to the environment. These methods include biological, physical, and limited chemical methods such as biocontrol, intercropping, crop rotation, and natural predators of the pests.
STB-1.D
Describe the benefits and drawbacks of integrated pest management (IPM).- STB-1.D.1 The use of integrated pest management (IPM) reduces the risk that pesticides pose to wildlife, water supplies, and human health.
- STB-1.D.2 Integrated pest management (IPM) minimizes disruptions to the environment and threats to human health but can be complex and expensive.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
综合虫害管理(integrated pest management)(IPM)结合方法——生物控制(自然捕食者)、轮作、有限的定向农药,和监测——以更少的化学使用控制害虫,减慢抗性并保护非目标物种。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Integrated pest management 综合虫害管理 zōng hé chóng hài guǎn lǐ 5.15
可持续农业
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge STB-1
Humans can mitigate their impact on land and water resources through sustainable use.STB-1.E
Describe sustainable agricultural and food production practices.- STB-1.E.1 The goal of soil conservation is to prevent soil erosion. Different methods of soil conservation include contour plowing, windbreaks, perennial crops, terracing, no-till agriculture, and strip cropping.
- STB-1.E.2 Strategies to improve soil fertility include crop rotation and the addition of green manure and limestone.
- STB-1.E.3 Rotational grazing is the regular rotation of livestock between different pastures in order to avoid overgrazing in a particular area.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
可持续农业保护土壤和水:轮作(crop rotation)、覆盖作物(cover crops)、等高耕作(contour plowing)、梯田(terracing)、减少耕作,和农林复合(agroforestry)。这些削减侵蚀、维持肥力,并减少化学投入。
水稻梯田把陡坡切成水平的台阶,所以水和土壤留在原地而不向下侵蚀 词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 crop rotation 轮作 lún zuò contour plowing 等高耕作 děng gāo gēng zuò terracing 梯田 tī tián 5.16
水产养殖
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge STB-1
Humans can mitigate their impact on land and water resources through sustainable use.STB-1.F
Describe the benefits and drawbacks of aquaculture.- STB-1.F.1 Aquaculture has expanded because it is highly efficient, requires only small areas of water, and requires little fuel.
- STB-1.F.2 Aquaculture can contaminate wastewater, and fish that escape may compete or breed with wild fish. The density of fish in aquaculture can lead to increases in disease incidences, which can be transmitted to wild fish.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
水产养殖(aquaculture)(养鱼)减轻对野生种群的压力并高效,但能用废物和抗生素污染水、把疾病传给野生鱼,并破坏栖息地(像为虾场的红树林)。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Aquaculture 水产养殖 shuǐ chǎn yǎng zhí 5.17
可持续林业
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge STB-1
Humans can mitigate their impact on land and water resources through sustainable use.STB-1.G
Describe methods for mitigating human impact on forests.- STB-1.G.1 Some of the methods for mitigating deforestation include reforestation, using and buying wood harvested by ecologically sustainable forestry techniques, and reusing wood.
- STB-1.G.2 Methods to protect forests from pathogens and insects include integrated pest management (IPM) and the removal of affected trees.
- STB-1.G.3 Prescribed burn is a method by which forests are set on fire under controlled conditions in order to reduce the occurrence of natural fires.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
可持续林业保持森林多产:择伐(selective cutting)而不是皆伐、重新种植、沿溪流留缓冲带,和长的轮伐时间。它维持栖息地、防止侵蚀,并让森林继续提供生态系统服务。
森林还吸收污染物并储存二氧化碳,所以砍伐和焚烧它们会释放 $\text{CO}_2$ 并加剧气候变化。缓解森林砍伐的方式包括重新造林(reforestation)(重新栽种)、购买来自生态可持续林业的木材,以及重复使用木材。另一个工具是计划烧除(prescribed burn):在受控的条件下故意焚烧一片森林以清除燃料,这样后来的野火就无法酿成灾难。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 selective cutting 择伐 zé fá reforestation 重新造林 chóng xīn zào lín prescribed burn 计划烧除 jì huà shāo chú 5.17
考试技巧
- 解释公地悲剧——共享的、无主的资源被过度使用——以及规则/所有权如何防止它。
- 权衡绿色革命、灌溉(盐碱化、含水层耗尽)和采矿/城市化的取舍。
- 以"地球的数量"计算一个生态足迹(足迹 ÷ 每人生物承载力);它按每人测量。
- 列出森林砍伐的害处(侵蚀、洪水、失去的栖息地、更多 CO₂)。
- 定义可持续性(满足需要而不伤害未来世代)并给出可持续的方法(IPM、轮作、配额)。
-
6
能源资源与消耗
6.1
可再生与不可再生资源
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge ENG-3
Humans use energy from a variety of sources, resulting in positive and negative consequences.ENG-3.A
Identify differences between nonrenewable and renewable energy sources.- ENG-3.A.1 Nonrenewable energy sources are those that exist in a fixed amount and involve energy transformation that cannot be easily replaced.
- ENG-3.A.2 Renewable energy sources are those that can be replenished naturally, at or near the rate of consumption, and reused.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
一种可再生资源(renewable resource)在一个人类时间尺度上补充(太阳、风、水、生物质);一种不可再生资源(nonrenewable resource)以固定的量存在,需要数百万年形成(化石燃料、核燃料)。不可再生资源最终会耗尽而且常常污染更多。
Wind turbines: renewable sources replenish on human timescales; fossil fuels do not 词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 renewable resource 可再生资源 kě zài shēng zī yuán nonrenewable resource 不可再生资源 bù kě zài shēng zī yuán fossil fuels 化石燃料 huà shí rán liào Wind 风能 fēng néng wind turbines 风力涡轮机 fēng lì wō lún jī 6.2
全球能源消耗
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge ENG-3
Humans use energy from a variety of sources, resulting in positive and negative consequences.ENG-3.B
Describe trends in energy consumption.- ENG-3.B.1 The use of energy resources is not evenly distributed between developed and developing countries.
- ENG-3.B.2 The most widely used sources of energy globally are fossil fuels.
- ENG-3.B.3 As developing countries become more developed, their reliance on fossil fuels for energy increases.
- ENG-3.B.4 As the world becomes more industrialized, the demand for energy increases.
- ENG-3.B.5 Availability, price, and governmental regulations influence which energy sources people use and how they use them.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
全球能源使用在上升,尤其是在发展中国家。大多数能源仍来自化石燃料(fossil fuels)。富有的国家每人消费最多;对能源的获取塑造经济发展。
探索Trace energy from source to use
A Sankey diagram shows how energy flows from sources to useful work — and how much is lost. Most primary energy is wasted as heat before it does anything useful.
6.3
燃料类型与用途
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge ENG-3
Humans use energy from a variety of sources, resulting in positive and negative consequences.ENG-3.C
Identify types of fuels and their uses.- ENG-3.C.1 Wood is commonly used as fuel in the forms of firewood and charcoal. It is often used in developing countries because it is easily accessible.
- ENG-3.C.2 Peat is partially decomposed organic material that can be burned for fuel.
- ENG-3.C.3 Three types of coal used for fuel are lignite, bituminous, and anthracite. Heat, pressure, and depth of burial contribute to the development of various coal types and their qualities.
- ENG-3.C.4 Natural gas, the cleanest of the fossil fuels, is mostly methane.
- ENG-3.C.5 Crude oil can be recovered from tar sands, which are a combination of clay, sand, water, and bitumen.
- ENG-3.C.6 Fossil fuels can be made into specific fuel types for specialized uses (e.g., in motor vehicles).
- ENG-3.C.7 Cogeneration occurs when a fuel source is used to generate both useful heat and electricity.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
不同的燃料适合不同的需要:煤和天然气用于电力、石油用于运输,而生物质在许多地区用于取暖和烹饪。每个在成本、可用性和污染上都有取舍。
6.4
自然能源资源的分布
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge ENG-3
Humans use energy from a variety of sources, resulting in positive and negative consequences.ENG-3.D
Identify where natural energy resources occur.- ENG-3.D.1 The global distribution of natural energy resources, such as ores, coal, crude oil, and gas, is not uniform and depends on regions' geologic history.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
能源资源不均匀地分布——石油集中在一些地区、煤在另一些,而可再生资源取决于本地的太阳、风或河流。这种不均匀的分布驱动贸易、经济和地缘政治。
6.5
化石燃料
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge ENG-3
Humans use energy from a variety of sources, resulting in positive and negative consequences.ENG-3.E
Describe the use and methods of fossil fuels in power generation.- ENG-3.E.1 The combustion of fossil fuels is a chemical reaction between the fuel and oxygen that yields carbon dioxide and water and releases energy.
- ENG-3.E.2 Energy from fossil fuels is produced by burning those fuels to generate heat, which then turns water into steam. That steam turns a turbine, which spins a generator, producing electricity.
- ENG-3.E.3 Humans use a variety of methods to extract fossil fuels from the earth for energy generation.
ENG-3.F
Describe the effects of fossil fuels on the environment.- ENG-3.F.1 Hydrologic fracturing (fracking) can cause groundwater contamination and the release of volatile organic compounds.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
化石燃料(coal、oil、natural gas)由古老的生物形成。它们能量密集而可靠,但不可再生并且是 $\text{CO}_2$ 和空气污染的主要来源。煤是最脏的;天然气燃烧得更清洁但泄漏甲烷(methane)。
一个露天褐煤(lignite)矿,给后面的发电站(power station)供料——燃料从地里挖出后就地燃烧 煤分阶段形成,它的等级(rank)随它所经受的热、压力和埋藏深度而上升。部分分解的植物物质先变成泥炭(peat)(它本身也能晒干后燃烧),然后是柔软的褐煤,再是烟煤(bituminous),最后是坚硬的无烟煤(anthracite)——每一步都更干、含碳更多、能量更高,所以无烟煤燃烧得最热、最清洁。
石油和天然气越来越多地通过水力压裂(hydraulic fracturing)(“fracking”)获取:把一种高压液体泵入页岩把它压裂,释放被困的燃料。它解锁了巨大的储量,但能污染地下水(甲烷和化学品进入饮用水井)、向空气释放挥发性有机化合物(volatile organic compounds),并引发小地震。
原油也能从油砂(tar sands)开采——黏土、沙、水和浓稠沥青(bitumen)的混合物。分离出石油既耗能又耗水,还清除大片土地,所以每桶油的环境代价很高。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 methane 甲烷 jiǎ wán lignite 褐煤 hè méi peat 泥炭 ní tàn bituminous 烟煤 yān méi anthracite 无烟煤 wú yān méi hydraulic fracturing 水力压裂 shuǐ lì yā liè volatile organic compounds 挥发性有机化合物 huī fā xìng yǒu jī huà hé wù tar sands 油砂 yóu shā bitumen 沥青 lì qīng power station 发电站 fā diàn zhàn 6.6
核能
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge ENG-3
Humans use energy from a variety of sources, resulting in positive and negative consequences.ENG-3.G
Describe the use of nuclear energy in power generation.- ENG-3.G.1 Nuclear power is generated through fission, where atoms of Uranium-235, which are stored in fuel rods, are split into smaller parts after being struck by a neutron. Nuclear fission releases a large amount of heat, which is used to generate steam, which powers a turbine and generates electricity.
- ENG-3.G.2 Radioactivity occurs when the nucleus of a radioactive isotope loses energy by emitting radiation.
- ENG-3.G.3 Uranium-235 remains radioactive for a long time, which leads to the problems associated with the disposal of nuclear waste.
- ENG-3.G.4 Nuclear power generation is a nonrenewable energy source. Nuclear power is considered a cleaner energy source because it does not produce air pollutants, but it does release thermal pollution and hazardous solid waste.
ENG-3.H
Describe the effects of the use of nuclear energy on the environment.- ENG-3.H.1 Three Mile Island, Chernobyl, and Fukushima are three cases where accidents or natural disasters led to the release of radiation. These releases have had short- and long-term impacts on the environment.
- ENG-3.H.2 A radioactive element's half-life can be used to calculate a variety of things, including the rate of decay and the radioactivity level at specific points in time.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
核能(nuclear power)分裂铀(裂变(fission))来煮沸水并驱动涡轮机。它产生没有 $\text{CO}_2$ 并从少量燃料产生大量能量,但风险包括放射性核废料(waste)(长寿命)、堆芯熔毁的危险,和高成本。
Worked example. 放射性废料按它的半衰期(half-life)衰变——它的一半衰变所需的时间。假设一个同位素有 $30$ 年的半衰期而一个反应堆留下 $100\ \text{g}$ 它。$30$ 年后剩 $50\ \text{g}$;$60$ 年后 $25\ \text{g}$;$90$ 年(三个半衰期)后 $100\times\left(\tfrac12\right)^3=12.5\ \text{g}$。因为下降是减半、不是线性的,废料在许多半衰期里保持危险——它必须被安全地存储几个世纪的核心原因。
一个铀-235 原子核的核裂变释放能量 
一座核电站(nuclear power station)。反应堆建筑装着燃料;海提供冷却水。注意没有烟——裂变不释放 $\text{CO}_2$ 词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Nuclear power 核能 hé néng fission 裂变 liè biàn waste 核废料 hé fèi liào nuclear power station 核电站 hé diàn zhàn 6.7
生物质能
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge ENG-3
Humans use energy from a variety of sources, resulting in positive and negative consequences.ENG-3.I
Describe the effects of the use of biomass in power generation on the environment.- ENG-3.I.1 Burning of biomass produces heat for energy at a relatively low cost, but it also produces carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, particulates, and volatile organic compounds. The overharvesting of trees for fuel also causes deforestation.
- ENG-3.I.2 Ethanol can be used as a substitute for gasoline. Burning ethanol does not introduce additional carbon into the atmosphere via combustion, but the energy return on energy investment for ethanol is low.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
生物质(biomass)(木材、作物、废物、像乙醇这样的生物燃料)是可再生的,而且若重新种植能碳中和,但燃烧它造成空气污染,而种植燃料作物与食物和栖息地竞争。
乙醇(ethanol)由玉米或甘蔗等作物制成,能替代汽油,燃烧时不增加新的碳(植物生长时吸收了那些 $\text{CO}_2$)。它的缺点是能量投资回报率(EROEI)(energy return on energy investment)低:种植、收获和蒸馏作物所用的能量,几乎和燃料最终提供的能量一样多。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Biomass 生物质 shēng wù zhì Ethanol 乙醇 yǐ chún energy return on energy investment (EROEI) 能量投资回报率 néng liàng tóu zī huí bào lǜ 6.8
太阳能
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge ENG-3
Humans use energy from a variety of sources, resulting in positive and negative consequences.ENG-3.J
Describe the use of solar energy in power generation.- ENG-3.J.1 Photovoltaic solar cells capture light energy from the sun and transform it directly into electrical energy. Their use is limited by the availability of sunlight.
- ENG-3.J.2 Active solar energy systems use solar energy to heat a liquid through mechanical and electric equipment to collect and store the energy captured from the sun.
- ENG-3.J.3 Passive solar energy systems absorb heat directly from the sun without the use of mechanical and electric equipment, and energy cannot be collected or stored.
ENG-3.K
Describe the effects of the use of solar energy in power generation on the environment.- ENG-3.K.1 Solar energy systems have low environmental impact and produce clean energy, but they can be expensive. Large solar energy farms may negatively impact desert ecosystems.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
太阳能(solar)把阳光转换成电(光伏板)或热。它是可再生的而且使用时清洁,但间歇性(晚上没有太阳)、需要空间,而且有制造影响。
一个太阳能电场。一排排光伏(photovoltaic)板朝着太阳倾斜;大的输出需要一大片土地 词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Solar 太阳能 tài yáng néng photovoltaic 光伏 guāng fú 6.9
水力发电
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge ENG-3
Humans use energy from a variety of sources, resulting in positive and negative consequences.ENG-3.L
Describe the use of hydroelectricity in power generation.- ENG-3.L.1 Hydroelectric power can be generated in several ways. Dams built across rivers collect water in reservoirs. The moving water can be used to spin a turbine. Turbines can also be placed in small rivers, where the flowing water spins the turbine.
- ENG-3.L.2 Tidal energy uses the energy produced by tidal flows to turn a turbine.
ENG-3.M
Describe the effects of the use of hydroelectricity in power generation on the environment.- ENG-3.M.1 Hydroelectric power does not generate air pollution or waste, but construction of the power plants can be expensive, and there may be a loss of or change in habitats following the construction of dams.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
水电(hydroelectric)力用流动的水(大坝)来旋转涡轮机——可再生而低排放,但大坝淹没栖息地、阻挡鱼类迁徙、截留泥沙,并使人们流离失所。
一座水电大坝(dam)。水库(reservoir)被拦在坝墙后;水穿过大坝落下,旋转坝底发电房里的涡轮机 词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Hydroelectric 水电 shuǐ diàn reservoir 水库 shuǐ kù dam 大坝 dà bà 6.10
地热能
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge ENG-3
Humans use energy from a variety of sources, resulting in positive and negative consequences.ENG-3.N
Describe the use of geothermal energy in power generation.- ENG-3.N.1 Geothermal energy is obtained by using the heat stored in the Earth's interior to heat up water, which is brought back to the surface as steam. The steam is used to drive an electric generator.
ENG-3.O
Describe the effects of the use of geothermal energy in power generation on the environment.- ENG-3.O.1 The cost of accessing geothermal energy can be prohibitively expensive, as is not easily accessible in many parts of the world. In addition, it can cause the release of hydrogen sulfide.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
地热能(geothermal)开采地球的内部热用于电力和取暖。它是可再生而可靠的,但只在热岩石接近表面的地方(火山地区)实用,而且能释放地下气体。
冰岛(一个火山地区)的一座地热发电站。下面热岩石产生的蒸汽(steam)被管道引上来驱动涡轮机 词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Geothermal 地热能 dì rè néng Steam 蒸汽 zhēng qì 6.11
氢燃料电池
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge ENG-3
Humans use energy from a variety of sources, resulting in positive and negative consequences.ENG-3.P
Describe the use of hydrogen fuel cells in power generation.- ENG-3.P.1 Hydrogen fuel cells are an alternate to non-renewable fuel sources. They use hydrogen as fuel, combining the hydrogen and oxygen in the air to form water and release energy (electricity) in the process. Water is the product (emission) of a fuel cell.
ENG-3.Q
Describe the effects of the use of hydrogen fuel cells in power generation on the environment.- ENG-3.Q.1 Hydrogen fuel cells have low environmental impact and produce no carbon dioxide when the hydrogen is produced from water. However, the technology is expensive and energy is still needed to create the hydrogen gas used in the fuel cell.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
一个氢燃料电池(hydrogen fuel cell)结合氢和氧制造电,使用时水作为唯一的排放。但生产氢通常需要能量(常常来自化石燃料),而存储很难。
一个氢-氧燃料电池制造电,水作为唯一的产物 词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 hydrogen fuel cell 氢燃料电池 qīng rán liào diàn chí 6.12
风能
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge ENG-3
Humans use energy from a variety of sources, resulting in positive and negative consequences.ENG-3.R
Describe the use of wind energy in power generation.- ENG-3.R.1 Wind turbines use the kinetic energy of moving air to spin a turbine, which spins a generator, producing electricity.
ENG-3.S
Describe the effects of the use of wind energy in power generation on the environment.- ENG-3.S.1 Wind energy is a renewable, clean source of energy. However, birds and bats may be killed if they fly into the spinning turbine blades.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
风能(wind)涡轮机把移动的空气转换成电——可再生、清洁而低运营成本,但间歇性、土地或海洋密集,而且对鸟和蝙蝠是一个危险。在风强而稳定的地方最好。
农田上的风力涡轮机(wind turbines)。它们占地很少,所以之间的土地仍然可以耕种 6.13
能源节约
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge ENG-3
Humans use energy from a variety of sources, resulting in positive and negative consequences.ENG-3.T
Describe methods for conserving energy.- ENG-3.T.1 Some of the methods for conserving energy around a home include adjusting the thermostat to reduce the use of heat and air conditioning, conserving water, use of energy-efficient appliances, and conservation landscaping.
- ENG-3.T.2 Methods for conserving energy on a large scale include improving fuel economy for vehicles, using BEVs (battery electric vehicles) and hybrid vehicles, using public transportation, and implementing green building design features.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
节能(energy conservation)通过效率(LED 照明、隔热、高效电器、公共交通)和行为减少需求。节约能源常常是最便宜和最清洁的选项——你不使用的能源不需要燃料而且不造成污染。
一个相关的效率提升是热电联产(cogeneration)(热与电联合生产):一次燃料燃烧同时用来产生电和有用的热,捕获普通电厂直接扔掉的废热——所以燃料能量中远更多的部分最终做了有用功。
Worked example. 用一个给出相同光的 $10\ \text{W}$ LED 替换一个 $60\ \text{W}$ 白炽灯泡节省 $50\ \text{W}$。每天运行它 $5$ 小时每天节省 $50\ \text{W}\times5\ \text{h}=250\ \text{Wh}=0.25\ \text{kWh}$,或每年约 $0.25\times365\approx91\ \text{kWh}$。把那个乘以一座城市里的每个灯泡,节约就匹敌一座新发电厂——以远低的成本。
A solar farm: generating more renewable energy and cutting demand are both energy-conservation strategies 词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Energy conservation 节能 jié néng cogeneration 热电联产 rè diàn lián chǎn 6.13
考试技巧
- 把可再生(太阳、风、水)与不可再生(化石燃料、核)分开并权衡每种来源的取舍。
- 化石燃料能量密集但排放 CO₂;核不排放 CO₂ 但留下长寿命的废料。
- 做半衰期数学:$n$ 个半衰期后剩下一个分数 $(\tfrac12)^n$。
- 注意太阳能和风能是间歇性的并需要存储或备用。
- 节约(效率)常常是最便宜、最清洁的选项——不使用的能源不需要燃料。
- 知道煤的等级(泥炭 → 褐煤 → 烟煤 → 无烟煤;越多热/压力/埋藏 → 能量越高)以及非常规燃料水力压裂(页岩油/气;地下水 + VOC 污染)和油砂(沥青,耗能)。
- 乙醇不增加净 CO₂,但 EROEI 低;热电联产捕获废热,使一种燃料同时提供电和热。
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7
大气污染
7.1
空气污染导论
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge STB-2
Human activities have physical, chemical, and biological consequences for the atmosphere.STB-2.A
Identify the sources and effects of air pollutants.- STB-2.A.1 Coal combustion releases air pollutants including carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, toxic metals, and particulates.
- STB-2.A.2 The combustion of fossil fuels releases nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere. They lead to the production of ozone, formation of photochemical smog, and convert to nitric acid in the atmosphere, causing acid rain. Other pollutants produced by fossil fuel combustion include carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, and particulate matter.
- STB-2.A.3 Air quality can be affected through the release of sulfur dioxide during the burning of fossil fuels, mainly diesel fuels.
- STB-2.A.4 Through the Clean Air Act, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulated the use of lead, particularly in fuels, which dramatically decreased the amount of lead in the atmosphere.
- STB-2.A.5 Air pollutants can be primary or secondary pollutants.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
空气污染(air pollution)是大气里有害的物质。一次污染物(primary pollutants)被直接排放(一氧化碳、氮氧化物、二氧化硫、颗粒物);二次污染物(secondary pollutants)在空气里由反应形成(像烟雾里的臭氧)。大多数来自车辆、发电厂和工业里的燃烧化石燃料。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Air pollution 空气污染 kōng qì wū rǎn Primary pollutants 一次污染物 yī cì wū rǎn wù secondary pollutants 二次污染物 èr cì wū rǎn wù 7.2
光化学烟雾
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge STB-2
Human activities have physical, chemical, and biological consequences for the atmosphere.STB-2.B
Explain the causes and effects of photochemical smog and methods to reduce it.- STB-2.B.1 Photochemical smog is formed when nitrogen oxides and volatile organic hydrocarbons react with heat and sunlight to produce a variety of pollutants.
- STB-2.B.2 Many environmental factors affect the formation of photochemical smog.
- STB-2.B.3 Nitrogen oxide is produced early in the day. Ozone concentrations peak in the afternoon and are higher in the summer because ozone is produced by chemical reactions between oxygen and sunlight.
- STB-2.B.4 Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs), such as formaldehyde and gasoline, evaporate or sublimate at room temperature. Trees are a natural source of VOCs.
- STB-2.B.5 Photochemical smog often forms in urban areas because of the large number of motor vehicles there.
- STB-2.B.6 Photochemical smog can be reduced through the reduction of nitrogen oxide and VOCs.
- STB-2.B.7 Photochemical smog can harm human health in several ways, including causing respiratory problems and eye irritation.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
光化学烟雾(photochemical smog)在阳光驱动来自汽车尾气的氮氧化物和挥发性有机化合物之间的反应时形成,产生地面臭氧(ozone)。它在阳光充足、汽车多的城市里最严重,并伤害肺。(地面臭氧是一种污染物,不像高处保护性的臭氧层。)
洛杉矶上空的光化学烟雾:晴天里,汽车尾气在阳光中反应,形成遮住天际线的褐色雾霾 词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Photochemical smog 光化学烟雾 guāng huà xué yān wù ozone 臭氧 chòu yǎng 7.3
逆温现象
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge STB-2
Human activities have physical, chemical, and biological consequences for the atmosphere.STB-2.C
Describe thermal inversion and its relationship with pollution.- STB-2.C.1 During a thermal inversion, the normal temperature gradient in the atmosphere is altered as the air temperature at the Earth's surface is cooler than the air at higher altitudes.
- STB-2.C.2 Thermal inversion traps pollution close to the ground, especially smog and particulates.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
逆温现象 一个逆温(thermal inversion)把污染困在地面附近。通常温暖的空气上升并把污染物带走,但在一个逆温里一层温暖的空气坐在较凉的空气之上,把它封住。污染物在下面积累——造成危险的烟雾事件,尤其是在山谷里。
通常温暖的空气上升并扩散污染;一个逆温把它封在地面附近 词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 thermal inversion 逆温 nì wēn 7.4
大气二氧化碳与颗粒物
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge STB-2
Human activities have physical, chemical, and biological consequences for the atmosphere.STB-2.D
Describe natural sources of $CO_2$ and particulates.- STB-2.D.1 $CO_2$ appears naturally in the atmosphere from sources such as respiration, decomposition, and volcanic eruptions.
- STB-2.D.2 There are a variety of natural sources of particulate matter.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
来自化石燃料的上升的大气 $\text{CO}_2$ 增强温室效应并使气候变暖。颗粒物(particulate matter)(微小的固体/液体颗粒,PM2.5 和 PM10)深入肺,造成呼吸和心脏疾病,并降低能见度。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Particulate matter 颗粒物 kē lì wù 7.5
室内空气污染物
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge STB-2
Human activities have physical, chemical, and biological consequences for the atmosphere.STB-2.E
Identify indoor air pollutants.- STB-2.E.1 Carbon monoxide is an indoor air pollutant that is classified as an asphyxiant.
- STB-2.E.2 Indoor air pollutants that are classified as particulates include asbestos, dust, and smoke.
- STB-2.E.3 Indoor air pollutants can come from natural sources, human-made sources, and combustion.
- STB-2.E.4 Common natural source indoor air pollutants include radon, mold, and dust.
- STB-2.E.5 Common human-made indoor air pollutants include insulation, Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) from furniture, paneling and carpets; formaldehyde from building materials, furniture, upholstery, and carpeting; and lead from paints.
- STB-2.E.6 Common combustion air pollutants include carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, particulates, and tobacco smoke.
- STB-2.E.7 Radon-222 is a naturally occurring radioactive gas that is produced by the decay of uranium found in some rocks and soils.
STB-2.F
Describe the effects of indoor air pollutants.- STB-2.F.1 Radon gas can infiltrate homes as it moves up through the soil and enters homes via the basement or cracks in the walls or foundation. It is also dissolved in groundwater that enters homes through a well.
- STB-2.F.2 Exposure to radon gas can lead to radon-induced lung cancer, which is the second leading cause of lung cancer in America.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
室内空气能比室外更污染。常见的室内污染物包括氡(radon)(来自地面的放射性气体,一个肺癌风险)、一氧化碳、石棉(asbestos)、烟草烟、霉菌,和来自油漆和家具的 VOCs。通风和源头控制减少暴露。
An indoor cookstove: biomass smoke is a major indoor air pollutant in many homes worldwide 词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 radon 氡 dōng asbestos 石棉 shí mián 7.6
空气污染物的减少
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge STB-2
Human activities have physical, chemical, and biological consequences for the atmosphere.STB-2.G
Explain how air pollutants can be reduced at the source.- STB-2.G.1 Methods to reduce air pollutants include regulatory practices, conservation practices, and alternative fuels.
- STB-2.G.2 A vapor recovery nozzle is an air pollution control device on a gasoline pump that prevents fumes from escaping into the atmosphere when fueling a motor vehicle.
- STB-2.G.3 A catalytic converter is an air pollution control device for internal combustion engines that converts pollutants (CO, $NO_x$, and hydrocarbons) in exhaust into less harmful molecules ($CO_2$, $N_2$, $O_2$, and $H_2O$).
- STB-2.G.4 Wet and dry scrubbers are air pollution control devices that remove particulates and/or gases from industrial exhaust streams.
- STB-2.G.5 Methods to reduce air pollution from coal-burning power plants include scrubbers and electrostatic precipitators.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
空气污染由技术和政策削减:汽车上的催化转化器(catalytic converters)、烟囱上的洗涤器(scrubbers)和静电除尘器(electrostatic precipitators)、更清洁的燃料,和像清洁空气法案(Clean Air Act)这样设定排放限制的法律。减少化石燃料使用解决根本原因。
一个催化转化器把有害的 NO 和 CO 变成无害的 N2 和 CO2 词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 catalytic converters 催化转化器 cuī huà zhuǎn huà qì scrubbers 洗涤器 xǐ dí qì electrostatic precipitators 静电除尘器 jìng diàn chú chén qì 7.7
酸雨
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge STB-2
Human activities have physical, chemical, and biological consequences for the atmosphere.STB-2.H
Describe acid deposition.- STB-2.H.1 Acid rain and deposition is due to nitrogen oxides and sulfur oxides from anthropogenic and natural sources in the atmosphere.
- STB-2.H.2 Nitric oxides that cause acid deposition come from motor vehicles and coal-burning power plants. Sulfur dioxides that cause acid deposition come from coal-burning power plants.
STB-2.I
Describe the effects of acid deposition on the environment.- STB-2.I.1 Acid deposition mainly affects communities that are downwind from coal-burning power plants.
- STB-2.I.2 Acid rain and deposition can lead to the acidification of soils and bodies of water and corrosion of human-made structures.
- STB-2.I.3 Regional differences in soils and bedrock affect the impact that acid deposition has on the region—such as limestone bedrock's ability to neutralize the effect of acid rain on lakes and ponds.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
酸雨(acid rain)在二氧化硫和氮氧化物与空气里的水反应制造硫酸和硝酸时形成,它们在很远的下风处落下。它使湖泊和土壤酸化(伤害鱼和树)、淋溶营养,并腐蚀建筑。减少 $\text{SO}_2$ 和 $\text{NO}_x$ 排放是修复。
氮和硫氧化物在雨里形成硝酸和硫酸 
Forest dieback: acid deposition from SO2 and NOx can damage trees far downwind of the source 探索How acidic is acid rain?
Acid rain forms when sulfur and nitrogen oxides dissolve into rain, dropping its pH well below the normal ~5.6. Each pH unit down is ten times more acidic.
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Acid rain 酸雨 suān yǔ 7.8
噪声污染
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge STB-2
Human activities have physical, chemical, and biological consequences for the atmosphere.STB-2.J
Describe human activities that result in noise pollution and its effects.- STB-2.J.1 Noise pollution is sound at levels high enough to cause physiological stress and hearing loss.
- STB-2.J.2 Sources of noise pollution in urban areas include transportation, construction, and domestic and industrial activity.
- STB-2.J.3 Some effects of noise pollution on animals in ecological systems include stress, the masking of sounds used to communicate or hunt, damaged hearing, and causing changes to migratory routes.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
噪声污染(noise pollution)是环境里不想要的或有害的声音。主要的来源是道路交通、飞机、火车、工业和建筑。在人里,长时间或响亮的暴露造成听力损失(hearing loss)、压力(stress)、睡眠损失,和更高的血压。它也扰乱野生动物(wildlife):它掩盖动物用来交流、导航和找配偶的声音,而来自船只的水下噪声对鲸鱼和海豚尤其有害。它由隔音屏障、更安静的引擎和消音器,和像机场周围缓冲区这样的土地使用规划来减少。
Worked example. 正常雨的 pH 约为 5.6;一个酸雨样本测得 pH 3.6。因为 pH 是以 10 为底的对数刻度,每一个单位是氢离子浓度 $10\times$ 的变化,所以 pH 3.6 比正常雨酸 $10^{(5.6-3.6)}=10^{2}=100$ 倍。这一百倍的跳跃就是为什么酸雨如此快地损害叶子、土壤和石灰岩。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 noise pollution 噪声污染 zào shēng wū rǎn hearing loss 听力损失 tīng lì sǔn shī stress 压力 yā lì wildlife 野生动物 yě shēng dòng wù 7.8
考试技巧
- 把一次污染物(直接排放:CO、NOₓ、SO₂、颗粒物)与二次(在空气里形成:地面臭氧)区分开。
- 地面臭氧是一种污染物,但高处的臭氧层是保护性的——不要把它们搞混。
- 解释一个逆温如何把污染困在地面附近。
- 酸雨(来自 SO₂ 和 NOₓ)常常在很远的下风处落下,使它成为一个国际问题。
- 把控制方法与污染物联系起来(催化转化器、洗涤器、更清洁的燃料、排放法律)。
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8
水生与陆地污染
8.1
污染源
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge STB-3
Human activities, including the use of resources, have physical, chemical, and biological consequences for ecosystems.STB-3.A
Identify differences between point and nonpoint sources of pollution.- STB-3.A.1 A point source refers to a single, identifiable source of a pollutant, such as a smokestack or waste discharge pipe.
- STB-3.A.2 Nonpoint sources of pollution are diffused and can therefore be difficult to identify, such as pesticide spraying or urban runoff.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
污染来源是点源或非点源。一个点源(point source)来自一个单一的、可辨认的地方(一个工厂管道、一个污水排放口)——容易定位和监管。一个非点源(nonpoint source)是分散的(农场径流、城市街道径流、汽车尾气)——因为它来自各处而难以控制得多。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 point source 点源 diǎn yuán nonpoint source 非点源 fēi diǎn yuán 8.2
人类对生态系统的影响
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge STB-3
Human activities, including the use of resources, have physical, chemical, and biological consequences for ecosystems.STB-3.B
Describe the impacts of human activities on aquatic ecosystems.- STB-3.B.1 Organisms have a range of tolerance for various pollutants. Organisms have an optimum range for each factor where they can maintain homeostasis. Outside of this range, organisms may experience physiological stress, limited growth, reduced reproduction, and in extreme cases, death.
- STB-3.B.2 Coral reefs have been suffering damage due to a variety of factors, including increasing ocean temperature, sediment runoff, and destructive fishing practices.
- STB-3.B.3 Oil spills in marine waters cause organisms to die from the hydrocarbons in oil. Oil that floats on the surface of water can coat the feathers of birds and fur of marine mammals. Some components of oil sink to the ocean floor, killing some bottom-dwelling organisms.
- STB-3.B.4 Oil that washes up on the beach can have economic consequences on the fishing and tourism industries.
- STB-3.B.5 Oceanic dead zones are areas of low oxygen in the world's oceans caused by increased nutrient pollution.
- STB-3.B.6 An oxygen sag curve is a plot of dissolved oxygen levels versus the distance from a source of pollution, usually excess nutrients and biological refuse.
- STB-3.B.7 Heavy metals used for industry, especially mining and burning of fossil fuels, can reach the groundwater, impacting the drinking water supply.
- STB-3.B.8 Litter that reaches aquatic ecosystems, besides being unsightly, can create intestinal blockage and choking hazards for wildlife and introduce toxic substances to the food chain.
- STB-3.B.9 Increased sediment in waterways can reduce light infiltration, which can affect primary producers and visual predators. Sediment can also settle, disrupting habitats.
- STB-3.B.10 When elemental sources of mercury enter aquatic environments, bacteria in the water convert it to highly toxic methylmercury.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
人类活动——污染、栖息地破坏、过度采收、引入物种——退化生态系统并减少生物多样性。因为物种相互连接,伤害一个部分能波及整个系统。
8.3
内分泌干扰物
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge STB-3
Human activities, including the use of resources, have physical, chemical, and biological consequences for ecosystems.STB-3.C
Describe endocrine disruptors.- STB-3.C.1 Endocrine disruptors are chemicals that can interfere with the endocrine system of animals.
STB-3.D
Describe the effects of endocrine disruptors on ecosystems.- STB-3.D.1 Endocrine disruptors can lead to birth defects, developmental disorders, and gender imbalances in fish and other species.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
内分泌干扰物(endocrine disruptors)是模仿或阻断激素的化学品(一些农药、像 BPA 这样的增塑剂),即使在很低的剂量也扰乱野生动物和人类的生长、繁殖和发育。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Endocrine disruptors 内分泌干扰物 nèi fēn mì gān rǎo wù 8.4
人类对湿地与红树林的影响
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge STB-3
Human activities, including the use of resources, have physical, chemical, and biological consequences for ecosystems.STB-3.E
Describe the impacts of human activity on wetlands and mangroves.- STB-3.E.1 Wetlands are areas where water covers the soil, either part or all of the time.
- STB-3.E.2 Wetlands provide a variety of ecological services, including water purification, flood protection, water filtration, and habitat.
- STB-3.E.3 Threats to wetlands and mangroves include commercial development, dam construction, overfishing, and pollutants from agriculture and industrial waste.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
湿地(wetlands)和红树林(mangroves)过滤污染物、储存洪水,并养育幼鱼,但它们为农场、虾塘和开发被排干和清除。失去它们移除有价值的生态系统服务和海岸保护。
红树林的根:这团根拦住泥沙、平息波浪,并庇护幼鱼——红树林被清除时,这些服务全部失去 词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Wetlands 湿地 shī dì mangroves 红树林 hóng shù lín 8.5
富营养化
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge STB-3
Human activities, including the use of resources, have physical, chemical, and biological consequences for ecosystems.STB-3.F
Explain the environmental effects of excessive use of fertilizers and detergents on aquatic ecosystems.- STB-3.F.1 Eutrophication occurs when a body of water is enriched in nutrients.
- STB-3.F.2 The increase in nutrients in eutrophic aquatic environments causes an algal bloom. When the algal bloom dies, microbes digest the algae, along with the oxygen in the water, leading to a decrease in the dissolved oxygen levels in the water. The lack of dissolved oxygen can result in large die-offs of fish and other aquatic organisms.
- STB-3.F.3 Hypoxic waterways are those bodies of water that are low in dissolved oxygen.
- STB-3.F.4 Compared to eutrophic waterways, oligotrophic waterways have very low amounts of nutrients, stable algae populations, and high dissolved oxygen.
- STB-3.F.5 Anthropogenic causes of eutrophication are agricultural runoff and wastewater release.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
水体富营养化 富营养化(eutrophication)在过量的营养(来自肥料和污水的氮、磷)触发藻华(algal blooms)时发生。当藻类死亡时,分解者用尽氧,创造使鱼窒息的缺氧(hypoxic)"死区"。
一个被藻华堵塞的池塘:过量的营养让藻类盖满整个水面。它们死亡腐烂时,水就失去氧 
额外的肥料使藻类爆发,然后水失去它的氧 词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Eutrophication 富营养化 fù yíng yǎng huà algal blooms 藻华 zǎo huá hypoxic 缺氧 quē yǎng 8.6
热污染
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge STB-3
Human activities, including the use of resources, have physical, chemical, and biological consequences for ecosystems.STB-3.G
Describe the effects of thermal pollution on aquatic ecosystems.- STB-3.G.1 Thermal pollution occurs when heat released into the water produces negative effects to the organisms in that ecosystem.
- STB-3.G.2 Variations in water temperature affect the concentration of dissolved oxygen because warm water does not contain as much oxygen as cold water.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
热污染(thermal pollution)是加进水的热,通常来自发电厂冷却。温暖的水容纳更少溶解氧并使适应较凉温度的水生生物受胁迫。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Thermal pollution 热污染 rè wū rǎn 8.7
持久性有机污染物
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge STB-3
Human activities, including the use of resources, have physical, chemical, and biological consequences for ecosystems.STB-3.H
Describe the effect of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) on ecosystems.- STB-3.H.1 Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) do not easily break down in the environment because they are synthetic, carbon-based molecules (such as DDT and PCBs).
- STB-3.H.2 Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) can be toxic to organisms because they are soluble in fat, which allows them to accumulate in organisms' fatty tissues.
- STB-3.H.3 Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) can travel over long distances via wind and water before being redeposited.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
持久性有机污染物(persistent organic pollutants)(POPs,像 DDT 和 PCBs)抵抗分解,所以它们持续数十年、远行,而且是脂溶性的,所以它们在生物里积累。这设置生物累积和生物放大。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Persistent organic pollutants 持久性有机污染物 chí jiǔ xìng yǒu jī wū rǎn wù 8.8
生物累积与生物放大
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge STB-3
Human activities, including the use of resources, have physical, chemical, and biological consequences for ecosystems.STB-3.I
Describe bioaccumulation and biomagnification.- STB-3.I.1 Bioaccumulation is the selective absorption and concentration of elements or compounds by cells in a living organism, most commonly fat-soluble compounds.
- STB-3.I.2 Biomagnification is the increase in concentration of substances per unit of body tissue that occurs in successively higher trophic levels of a food chain or in a food web.
STB-3.J
Describe the effects of bioaccumulation and biomagnification.- STB-3.J.1 Some effects that can occur in an ecosystem when a persistent substance is biomagnified in a food chain include eggshell thinning and developmental deformities in top carnivores of the higher trophic levels.
- STB-3.J.2 Humans also experience harmful effects from biomagnification, including issues with the reproductive, nervous, and circulatory systems.
- STB-3.J.3 DDT, mercury, and PCBs are substances that bioaccumulate and have significant environmental impacts.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
生物累积与生物放大 生物累积(bioaccumulation)是一种毒素在一个生物之内在它一生里的积累。生物放大(biomagnification)是浓度沿食物链向上的增加——顶级捕食者最终有最高的水平,这就是为什么大的捕食性鱼携带最多的汞。
Worked example. 假设湖水容纳 DDT 仅 $0.01\ \text{ppm}$。浮游生物把它浓缩到 $0.5\ \text{ppm}$、小鱼到 $2\ \text{ppm}$、大鱼到 $10\ \text{ppm}$,而一只食鱼的鹰到 $25\ \text{ppm}$。从水到鹰浓度已经放大了约 $\dfrac{25}{0.01}=2500$ 倍——这就是为什么即使水本身看起来只轻微污染,一个顶级捕食者也能被毒害。
探索Toxins concentrate up the food chain
Bioaccumulation builds a toxin up in one organism; biomagnification concentrates it at each step up the food chain, so top predators carry the highest doses.
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Bioaccumulation 生物累积 shēng wù lěi jī Biomagnification 生物放大 shēng wù fàng dà 8.9
固体废物处置
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge STB-3
Human activities, including the use of resources, have physical, chemical, and biological consequences for ecosystems.STB-3.K
Describe solid waste disposal methods.- STB-3.K.1 Solid waste is any discarded material that is not a liquid or gas. It is generated in domestic, industrial, business, and agricultural sectors.
- STB-3.K.2 Solid waste is most often disposed of in landfills. Landfills can contaminate groundwater and release harmful gases.
- STB-3.K.3 Electronic waste, or e-waste, is composed of discarded electronic devices including televisions, cell phones, and computers.
- STB-3.K.4 A sanitary municipal landfill consists of a bottom liner (plastic or clay), a storm water collection system, a leachate collection system, a cap, and a methane collection system.
STB-3.L
Describe the effects of solid waste disposal methods.- STB-3.L.1 Factors in landfill decomposition include the composition of the trash and conditions needed for microbial decomposition of the waste.
- STB-3.L.2 Solid waste can also be disposed of through incineration, where waste is burned at high temperatures. This method significantly reduces the volume of solid waste but releases air pollutants.
- STB-3.L.3 Some items are not accepted in sanitary landfills and may be disposed of illegally, leading to environmental problems. One example is used rubber tires, which when left in piles can become breeding grounds for mosquitoes that can spread disease.
- STB-3.L.4 Some countries dispose of their waste by dumping it in the ocean. This practice, along with other sources of plastic, has led to large floating islands of trash in the oceans. Additionally, wildlife can become entangled in the waste, as well as ingest it.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
固体废物是任何不是液体或气体的被丢弃材料,由家庭、工业、商业和农业产生。它被埋在卫生填埋场(sanitary landfills)(有衬里以限制渗滤液)或在焚烧炉(incinerators)里燃烧(减少体积但排放污染物)。填埋场占用空间并能泄漏;两者都有环境成本,所以减少废物更受偏好。
考试专门点名两类:电子垃圾(e-waste)(被丢弃的电子产品 - 手机、电脑、电视 - 含有有毒金属),以及海洋倾倒,即塑料和其他废物在远海汇聚成巨大的漂浮垃圾带(garbage patches)。
一个填埋场:固体废物被埋在这里有衬里的单元中。它占用土地并能泄漏,这就是为什么减少废物排在最前面 词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 sanitary landfills 卫生填埋场 wèi shēng tián mái chǎng incinerators 焚烧炉 fén shāo lú e-waste 电子垃圾 diàn zǐ lā jī garbage patches 垃圾带 lā jī dài 8.10
废物减量方法
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge STB-3
Human activities, including the use of resources, have physical, chemical, and biological consequences for ecosystems.STB-3.M
Describe changes to current practices that could reduce the amount of generated waste and their associated benefits and drawbacks.- STB-3.M.1 Recycling is a process by which certain solid waste materials are processed and converted into new products.
- STB-3.M.2 Recycling is one way to reduce the current global demand on minerals, but this process is energy-intensive and can be costly.
- STB-3.M.3 Composting is the process of organic matter such as food scraps, paper, and yard waste decomposing. The product of this decomposition can be used as fertilizer. Drawbacks to composting include odor and rodents.
- STB-3.M.4 E-waste can be reduced by recycling and reuse. E-wastes may contain hazardous chemicals, including heavy metals such as lead and mercury, which can leach from landfills into groundwater if they are not disposed of properly.
- STB-3.M.5 Landfill mitigation strategies range from burning waste for energy to restoring habitat on former landfills for use as parks.
- STB-3.M.6 The combustion of gases produced from decomposition of organic material in landfills can be used to turn turbines and generate electricity. This process reduces landfill volume.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
废物层级是减量、再利用、回收(reduce, reuse, recycle),加上有机废物的堆肥(composting)。减少消费最好(没有废物要管理);回收和堆肥回收材料并削减填埋场使用。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 reduce, reuse, recycle 减量、再利用、回收 jiǎn liàng 、 zài lì yòng 、 huí shōu composting 堆肥 duī féi 8.11
污水处理
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge STB-3
Human activities, including the use of resources, have physical, chemical, and biological consequences for ecosystems.STB-3.N
Describe best practices in sewage treatment.- STB-3.N.1 Primary treatment of sewage is the physical removal of large objects, often through the use of screens and grates, followed by the settling of solid waste in the bottom of a tank.
- STB-3.N.2 Secondary treatment is a biological process in which bacteria break down organic matter into carbon dioxide and inorganic sludge, which settles in the bottom of a tank. The tank is aerated to increase the rate at which the bacteria break down the organic matter.
- STB-3.N.3 Tertiary treatment is the use of ecological or chemical processes to remove any pollutants left in the water after primary and secondary treatment.
- STB-3.N.4 Prior to discharge, the treated water is exposed to one or more disinfectants (usually, chlorine, ozone, or UV light) to kill bacteria.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
污水处理(sewage treatment)分阶段清洁废水:一级(沉淀出固体)、二级(细菌分解有机物),有时三级(移除营养和消毒)。这保护水道免于病原体和营养污染。
处理水使它安全:沉降、过滤,然后消毒 词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Sewage treatment 污水处理 wū shuǐ chǔ lǐ 8.12
半数致死剂量
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge EIN-3
Pollutants can have both direct and indirect impacts on the health of organisms, including humans.EIN-3.A
Define lethal dose 50% ($LD_{50}$).- EIN-3.A.1 Lethal dose 50% ($LD_{50}$) is the dose of a chemical that is lethal to 50% of the population of a particular species.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
剂量反应曲线与半数致死量 半数致死量(LD50)是杀死一个测试种群 50% 的一种物质的剂量。一个更低的 LD50 意味着一种更毒的物质(需要更少才致命)。它是比较毒性的一个标准方式。
Worked example. 化学品 A 有每千克体重 $5\ \text{mg}$ 的 LD50;化学品 B,$500\ \text{mg/kg}$。因为 A 的值小 $100$ 倍,A 约 $100\times$ 更毒。对于一个 $70\ \text{kg}$ 的成人,预期对一半人致命的 A 的剂量是 $5\ \text{mg/kg}\times70\ \text{kg}=350\ \text{mg}$ ——一个微小的量,而 B 会需要 $500\times70=35{,}000\ \text{mg}$($35\ \text{g}$)。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 LD50 半数致死量 bàn shù zhì sǐ liàng 8.13
剂量反应曲线
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge EIN-3
Pollutants can have both direct and indirect impacts on the health of organisms, including humans.EIN-3.B
Evaluate dose response curves.- EIN-3.B.1 A dose response curve describes the effect on an organism or mortality rate in a population based on the dose of a particular toxin or drug.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
一条剂量反应曲线(dose–response curve)画出效应对剂量。一般地,更高的剂量造成更大的效应。一些化学品有一个阈值(threshold)(低于它没有效应);对于另一些任何暴露都携带风险。这些曲线指导安全限值。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 dose–response curve 剂量反应曲线 jì liàng fǎn yìng qū xiàn threshold 阈值 yù zhí 8.14
污染与人类健康
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge EIN-3
Pollutants can have both direct and indirect impacts on the health of organisms, including humans.EIN-3.C
Identify sources of human health issues that are linked to pollution.- EIN-3.C.1 It can be difficult to establish a cause and effect between pollutants and human health issues because humans experience exposure to a variety of chemicals and pollutants.
- EIN-3.C.2 Dysentery is caused by untreated sewage in streams and rivers.
- EIN-3.C.3 Mesothelioma is a type of cancer caused mainly by exposure to asbestos.
- EIN-3.C.4 Respiratory problems and overall lung function can be impacted by elevated levels of tropospheric ozone.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
污染直接(来自空气污染的呼吸疾病、来自污染水的中毒)和间接地伤害健康。剂量、持续时间和个体敏感性都影响结果。穷人常常最被暴露而最少被保护。
8.15
病原体与传染病
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge EIN-3
Pollutants can have both direct and indirect impacts on the health of organisms, including humans.EIN-3.D
Explain human pathogens and their cycling through the environment.- EIN-3.D.1 Pathogens adapt to take advantage of new opportunities to infect and spread through human populations.
- EIN-3.D.2 Specific pathogens can occur in many environments regardless of the appearance of sanitary conditions.
- EIN-3.D.3 As equatorial-type climate zones spread north and south in to what are currently subtropical and temperate climate zones, pathogens, infectious diseases, and any associated vectors are spreading into these areas where the disease has not previously been known to occur.
- EIN-3.D.4 Poverty-stricken, low-income areas often lack sanitary waste disposal and have contaminated drinking water supplies, leading to havens and opportunities for the spread of infectious diseases.
- EIN-3.D.5 Plague is a disease carried by organisms infected with the plague bacteria. It is transferred to humans via the bite of an infected organism or through contact with contaminated fluids or tissues.
- EIN-3.D.6 Tuberculosis is a bacterial infection that typically attacks the lungs. It is spread by breathing in the bacteria from the bodily fluids of an infected person.
- EIN-3.D.7 Malaria is a parasitic disease caused by bites from infected mosquitoes. It is most often found in sub-Saharan Africa.
- EIN-3.D.8 West Nile virus is transmitted to humans via bites from infected mosquitoes.
- EIN-3.D.9 Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) is a form of pneumonia. It is transferred by inhaling or touching infected fluids.
- EIN-3.D.10 Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS) is a viral respiratory illness that is transferred from animals to humans.
- EIN-3.D.11 Zika is a virus caused by bites from infected mosquitoes. It can be transmitted through sexual contact.
- EIN-3.D.12 Cholera is a bacterial disease that is contracted from infected water.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
病原体(pathogens)(细菌、病毒、寄生虫)通过污染的水和食物传播。考试会点名具体的疾病,并要求你知道每一种是如何传播的,因为传播途径决定了防御方法:
疾病 类型 如何传播 霍乱(cholera) 细菌性 被污水污染的饮用水 痢疾(dysentery) 细菌性 河流与溪流中未经处理的污水 鼠疫(plague) 细菌性 被感染生物(如跳蚤)的叮咬,或接触被感染的体液 结核病(TB)(tuberculosis) 细菌性 吸入被感染者体液中的细菌 疟疾(malaria) 寄生虫性 被感染的蚊子(mosquito)叮咬(多见于撒哈拉以南非洲) 西尼罗/寨卡(West Nile / Zika) 病毒性 被感染的蚊子叮咬(寨卡还可通过性接触传播) SARS / MERS 病毒性 吸入或接触被感染的体液;MERS 由动物传给人 有两个宏观的观点能得分。贫困加深了这个问题 —— 低收入地区往往缺乏卫生的废物处理和清洁的水,给水传播疾病提供了温床。而气候变化会扩散疾病:随着温暖的赤道气候带向两极扩展,蚊子和其他传播媒介(vectors)—— 以及它们携带的疾病 —— 会进入那些从未有过它们的温带地区。清洁的水、卫生设施和媒介控制仍然是主要的防御。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Pathogens 病原体 bìng yuán tǐ Cholera 霍乱 huò luàn Dysentery 痢疾 lì jí Plague 鼠疫 shǔ yì Tuberculosis (TB) 结核病 jié hé bìng Malaria 疟疾 nüè jí mosquito 蚊子 wén zi West Nile / Zika 西尼罗/寨卡 xī ní luó / zhài kǎ vectors 传播媒介 chuán bō méi jiè 8.15
考试技巧
- 逐步追踪富营养化:营养径流 → 藻华 → 腐烂 → 氧耗尽 → 鱼死。
- 生物累积在一个生物里积累;生物放大沿食物链向上增加,所以顶级捕食者受打击最重。
- 读一个 LD50:一个更低的值意味着更毒;乘以体重得到一个致死剂量。
- 排序废物层级 减量 > 再利用 > 回收,以及污水处理的阶段。
- 把病原体与污染的水以及清洁水/卫生设施防御联系起来。
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9
全球变化
9.1
平流层臭氧耗损
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge STB-4
Local and regional human activities can have impacts at the global level.STB-4.A
Explain the importance of stratospheric ozone to life on Earth.- STB-4.A.1 The stratospheric ozone layer is important to the evolution of life on Earth and the continued health and survival of life on Earth.
- STB-4.A.2 Stratospheric ozone depletion is caused by anthropogenic factors, such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), and natural factors, such as the melting of ice crystals in the atmosphere at the beginning of the Antarctic spring.
- STB-4.A.3 A decrease in stratospheric ozone increases the UV rays that reach the Earth's surface. Exposure to UV rays can lead to skin cancer and cataracts in humans.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
平流层臭氧损耗 平流层高处的臭氧层(ozone layer)吸收有害的紫外线(ultraviolet)辐射。氯氟烃(CFCs)(chlorofluorocarbons,曾用于冷却剂和喷雾)向上漂移并释放破坏臭氧的氯,使它变薄(南极"臭氧洞")。更多 UV 到达表面提高皮肤癌、白内障和作物损害。
南极上空的臭氧洞(深蓝色),来自 NASA 卫星图:这里是臭氧层变得最薄的地方 词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 ozone layer 臭氧层 chòu yǎng céng ultraviolet 紫外线 zǐ wài xiàn 9.2
减少臭氧耗损
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge STB-4
Local and regional human activities can have impacts at the global level.STB-4.B
Describe chemicals used to substitute for chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).- STB-4.B.1 Ozone depletion can be mitigated by replacing ozone-depleting chemicals with substitutes that do not deplete the ozone layer. Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) are one such replacement, but some are strong greenhouse gases.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
蒙特利尔议定书(Montreal Protocol)(1987)在全世界逐步淘汰 CFCs,而且是一个罕见的环境成功——臭氧层正在缓慢恢复。替代品(像 HFCs 和 HCFCs)替换了 CFCs,尽管一些本身是温室气体。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Montreal Protocol 蒙特利尔议定书 méng tè lì ěr yì dìng shū 9.3
温室效应
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Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge STB-4
Local and regional human activities can have impacts at the global level.STB-4.C
Identify the greenhouse gases.- STB-4.C.1 The principal greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide, methane, water vapor, nitrous oxide, and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).
- STB-4.C.2 While water vapor is a greenhouse gas, it doesn't contribute significantly to global climate change because it has a short residence time in the atmosphere.
- STB-4.C.3 The greenhouse effect results in the surface temperature necessary for life on Earth to exist.
STB-4.D
Identify the sources and potency of the greenhouse gases.- STB-4.D.1 Carbon dioxide, which has a global warming potential (GWP) of 1, is used as a reference point for the comparison of different greenhouse gases and their impacts on global climate change. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) have the highest GWP, followed by nitrous oxide, then methane.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
温室效应 温室效应(greenhouse effect)保持地球温暖:温室气体(greenhouse gases)让阳光进入但截留外出的红外热。这个自然的效应使地球可居住。问题是增强的温室效应——人类添加截留更多热的额外气体。
温室气体吸收地球放出的热并送一些回去 词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 greenhouse effect 温室效应 wēn shì xiào yìng greenhouse gases 温室气体 wēn shì qì tǐ 9.4
温室气体的增加
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Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge STB-4
Local and regional human activities can have impacts at the global level.STB-4.E
Identify the threats to human health and the environment posed by an increase in greenhouse gases.- STB-4.E.1 Global climate change, caused by excess greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, can lead to a variety of environmental problems including rising sea levels resulting from melting ice sheets and ocean water expansion, and disease vectors spreading from the tropics toward the poles. These problems can lead to changes in population dynamics and population movements in response.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
人类活动提高温室气体:来自燃烧化石燃料和森林砍伐的 $\text{CO}_2$、来自牲畜、填埋场和稻田的甲烷(methane),和来自肥料的一氧化二氮(nitrous oxide)。甲烷每分子截留的热远多于 $\text{CO}_2$ 但没那么丰富。
为了公平地比较各种气体,我们使用全球变暖潜能值(GWP)(global warming potential)—— 相对于 $\text{CO}_2$,一单位某气体在一段设定的时间内截留多少热。$\text{CO}_2$ 是基准,GWP = 1,所以其他每一种气体都以它为参照来衡量。按 GWP 排序:CFCs 最高,然后是一氧化二氮,再是甲烷 —— 它们每分子截留的热都远多于 $\text{CO}_2$。但仅凭 GWP 并不能决定影响:$\text{CO}_2$ 总体上仍造成最多的变暖,因为它的排放量大得多。考试要求两方面都答到 —— 高的 GWP 以及排放了多少。
Coal mining and combustion: burning fossil fuels is the main driver of rising atmospheric CO2 词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 CFCs 氯氟烃 lǜ fú tīng methane 甲烷 jiǎ wán global warming potential (GWP) 全球变暖潜能值 quán qiú biàn nuǎn qián néng zhí 9.5
全球气候变化
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Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge STB-4
Local and regional human activities can have impacts at the global level.STB-4.F
Explain how changes in climate, both short- and long-term, impact ecosystems.- STB-4.F.1 The Earth has undergone climate change throughout geologic time, with major shifts in global temperatures causing periods of warming and cooling as recorded with $\text{CO}_2$ data and ice cores.
- STB-4.F.2 Effects of climate change include rising temperatures, melting permafrost and sea ice, rising sea levels, and displacement of coastal populations.
- STB-4.F.3 Marine ecosystems are affected by changes in sea level, some positively, such as in newly created habitats on now-flooded continental shelves, and some negatively, such as deeper communities that may no longer be in the photic zone of seawater.
- STB-4.F.4 Winds generated by atmospheric circulation help transport heat throughout the Earth. Climate change may change circulation patterns, as temperature changes may impact Hadley cells and the jet stream.
- STB-4.F.5 Oceanic currents, or the ocean conveyor belt, carry heat throughout the world. When these currents change, it can have a big impact on global climate, especially in coastal regions.
- STB-4.F.6 Climate change can affect soil through changes in temperature and rainfall, which can impact soil's viability and potentially increase erosion.
- STB-4.F.7 Earth's polar regions are showing faster response times to global climate change because ice and snow in these regions reflect the most energy back out to space, leading to a positive feedback loop.
- STB-4.F.8 As the Earth warms, this ice and snow melts, meaning less solar energy is radiated back into space and instead is absorbed by the Earth's surface. This in turn causes more warming of the polar regions.
- STB-4.F.9 Global climate change response time in the Arctic is due to positive feedback loops involving melting sea ice and thawing tundra, and the subsequent release of greenhouse gases like methane.
- STB-4.F.10 One consequence of the loss of ice and snow in polar regions is the effect on species that depend on the ice for habitat and food.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
气候变化(global climate change)是来自增强温室效应的气候的长期转变:上升的平均温度、融化的冰、上升的海平面(sea levels)、更极端的天气,和转变的降雨。它在全世界扰乱生态系统、农业和人类社区。
一座冰川(glacier)崩解入海。变暖融化陆地上的冰,给海洋增加水并抬高海平面 词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Global climate change 气候变化 qì hòu biàn huà sea levels 海平面 hǎi píng miàn 9.6
海洋变暖
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Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge STB-4
Local and regional human activities can have impacts at the global level.STB-4.G
Explain the causes and effects of ocean warming.- STB-4.G.1 Ocean warming is caused by the increase in greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
- STB-4.G.2 Ocean warming can affect marine species in a variety of ways, including loss of habitat, and metabolic and reproductive changes.
- STB-4.G.3 Ocean warming is causing coral bleaching, which occurs when the loss of algae within corals cause the corals to bleach white. Some corals recover and some die.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
随着气候变暖,海洋吸收大部分额外的热。海洋变暖造成珊瑚白化(coral bleaching)(珊瑚排出它们的藻类并能死亡)、转变物种范围、减少溶解氧,并——随着融化的冰——通过热膨胀(thermal expansion)提高海平面。
一丛白化的珊瑚:更暖的水使它排出彩色的藻类,只剩下裸露的白色骨架。如果高温持续,珊瑚会死 词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 coral bleaching 珊瑚白化 shān hú bái huà 9.7
海洋酸化
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Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge STB-4
Local and regional human activities can have impacts at the global level.STB-4.H
Explain the causes and effects of ocean acidification.- STB-4.H.1 Ocean acidification is the decrease in pH of the oceans, primarily due to increased $\text{CO}_2$ concentrations in the atmosphere, and can be expressed as chemical equations.
- STB-4.H.2 As more $\text{CO}_2$ is released into the atmosphere, the oceans, which absorb a large part of that $\text{CO}_2$, become more acidic.
- STB-4.H.3 Anthropogenic activities that contribute to ocean acidification are those that lead to increased $\text{CO}_2$ concentrations in the atmosphere: burning of fossil fuels, vehicle emissions, and deforestation.
- STB-4.H.4 Ocean acidification damages coral because acidification makes it difficult for them to form shells, due to the loss of calcium carbonate.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
海洋吸收我们约四分之一的 $\text{CO}_2$,它形成碳酸——海洋酸化(ocean acidification)。更低的 pH 使珊瑚、贝类和浮游生物更难建立碳酸钙(calcium carbonate)壳和骨骼,威胁海洋食物网。
探索How the ocean acidifies
Oceans absorb CO$_2$, which forms carbonic acid and lowers seawater pH. Even a small drop is a big rise in acidity (the scale is logarithmic) and harms shell-builders.
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 ocean acidification 海洋酸化 hǎi yáng suān huà calcium carbonate 碳酸钙 tàn suān gài 9.8
入侵物种
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Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge EIN-4
The health of a species is closely tied to its ecosystem, and minor environmental changes can have a large impact.EIN-4.A
Explain the environmental problems associated with invasive species and strategies to control them.- EIN-4.A.1 Invasive species are species that can live, and sometimes thrive, outside of their normal habitat. Invasive species can sometimes be beneficial, but they are considered invasive when they threaten native species.
- EIN-4.A.2 Invasive species are often generalist, r-selected species and therefore may outcompete native species for resources.
- EIN-4.A.3 Invasive species can be controlled through a variety of human interventions.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
一个入侵物种(invasive species)是一个扩散并伤害它新生态系统的非本地物种。没有自然的捕食者,它在竞争中胜过本地种、传播疾病,并减少生物多样性(葛藤、斑马贻贝、缅甸蟒)。人类贸易和旅行把它们四处移动。
入侵藤本植物葛藤把一片树木闷住。在新家里没有天敌,它把覆盖的一切都盖住并害死 词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 invasive species 入侵物种 rù qīn wù zhǒng 9.9
濒危物种
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Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge EIN-4
The health of a species is closely tied to its ecosystem, and minor environmental changes can have a large impact.EIN-4.B
Explain how species become endangered and strategies to combat the problem.- EIN-4.B.1 A variety of factors can lead to a species becoming threatened with extinction, such as being extensively hunted, having limited diet, being outcompeted by invasive species, or having specific and limited habitat requirements.
- EIN-4.B.2 Not all species will be in danger of extinction when exposed to the same changes in their ecosystem. Species that are able to adapt to changes in their environment or that are able to move to a new environment are less likely to face extinction.
- EIN-4.B.3 Selective pressures are any factors that change the behaviors and fitness of organisms within an environment.
- EIN-4.B.4 Species in a given ecosystem compete for resources like territory, food, mates, and habitat, and this competition may lead to endangerment or extinction.
- EIN-4.B.5 Strategies to protect animal populations include criminalizing poaching, protecting animal habitats, and legislation.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
一个濒危物种(endangered species)有灭绝的风险。原因被总结为 HIPPO:栖息地(Habitat)丧失、入侵(Invasive)物种、污染(Pollution)、人口(Population)(人类)增长,和过度采收(Overharvesting)。保护包括法律(濒危物种法案)、保护区和圈养繁殖。
A coral reef: habitat loss, warming and acidification put whole reef communities at risk of extinction 探索A population under pressure
When deaths outpace births, a population falls toward extinction. Below a critical size, low genetic diversity and chance events make recovery harder.
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 endangered species 濒危物种 bīn wēi wù zhǒng 9.10
人类对生物多样性的影响
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Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge EIN-4
The health of a species is closely tied to its ecosystem, and minor environmental changes can have a large impact.EIN-4.C
Explain how human activities affect biodiversity and strategies to combat the problem.- EIN-4.C.1 HIPPCO (habitat destruction, invasive species, population growth, pollution, climate change, and over exploitation) describes the main factors leading to a decrease in biodiversity.
- EIN-4.C.2 Habitat fragmentation occurs when large habitats are broken into smaller, isolated areas. Causes of habitat fragmentation include the construction of roads and pipelines, clearing for agriculture or development, and logging.
- EIN-4.C.3 The scale of habitat fragmentation that has an adverse effect on the inhabitants of a given ecosystem will vary from species to species within that ecosystem.
- EIN-4.C.4 Global climate change can cause habitat loss via changes in temperature, precipitation, and sea level rise.
- EIN-4.C.5 Some organisms have been somewhat or completely domesticated and are now managed for economic returns, such as honeybee colonies and domestic livestock. This domestication can have a negative impact on the biodiversity of that organism.
- EIN-4.C.6 Some ways humans can mitigate the impact of loss of biodiversity include creating protected areas, use of habitat corridors, promoting sustainable land use practices, and restoring lost habitats.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
栖息地丧失、气候变化、污染、入侵物种和过度开发一起,正在驱动一个快速的生物多样性丧失——一些人称它为第六次大灭绝。减少这些压力、保护栖息地和可持续的做法是减慢它并保护所有生命依赖的生态系统服务的方式。
一个具体且被大量考查的驱动因素是栖息地破碎化(habitat fragmentation):大片连续的栖息地被道路、管道和开发割裂成更小的、孤立的斑块。破碎化比单纯的面积丧失更糟,因为小斑块把种群彼此隔开,降低遗传多样性,并把更多边缘暴露给捕食者和入侵物种。
就地和迁地保护保护物种 Worked example. 大气 CO$_2$ 从工业化前的约 280 ppm 上升到今天的约 420 ppm。百分比增加是 $\dfrac{420-280}{280}\times100\% = \dfrac{140}{280}\times100\% = 50\%$。主要长寿命温室气体这大约 50% 的上升是增强温室效应和现代变暖的核心驱动因素。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 habitat fragmentation 栖息地破碎化 qī xī dì pò suì huà The ozone hole 臭氧洞 chòu yǎng dòng A glacier 冰川 bīng chuān 9.10
考试技巧
- 把臭氧消耗(CFCs 让进更多 UV)和气候变化(温室气体截留更多热)当作两个不同的问题。
- 解释自然的温室效应和来自额外 CO₂ 和甲烷的增强版本。
- 连接海洋变暖(珊瑚白化)和海洋酸化(CO₂ → 碳酸 → 更弱的壳)。
- 一个入侵物种危险,因为它在它的新家里没有自然的捕食者。
- 用 HIPPO 总结对生物多样性的威胁(Habitat 栖息地丧失、Invasive 入侵物种、Pollution 污染、Population 人口、Overharvesting 过度采收)。