剑桥 IGCSE IGCSE, A-Level & AP 练习单预览

组织、连贯与风格

AP 英语语言与写作 · 第 5 主题

训练
讲义 词汇表
5.1

描述论证线索
大纲
Enduring UnderstandingLearning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

REO-1
Writers guide understanding of a text’s lines of reasoning and claims through that text’s organization and integration of evidence.

5.A
Reading – Describe the line of reasoning and explain whether it supports an argument’s overarching thesis.

  • REO-1.M The body paragraphs of a written argument make claims, support them with evidence, and provide commentary that explains how the paragraph contributes to the reasoning of the argument.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

第五单元从论证包含什么转向它如何黏合在一起。它有两个主题:连贯(coherence)与文体(style)的开端。

CED 对主体段落的表述十分精确,值得背下来:书面论证的主体段落提出主张,以证据支撑主张,并提供解释证据与主张之关系的评述。

三个部分,按这一顺序,出现在每一个主体段落中。当一篇 AP 文章丢掉"证据与评述"的分数时,几乎总是因为前两部分俱在的段落里缺了第三部分。

词汇表 训练
英文 中文 拼音
coherence 连贯 lián guàn
style 文体 wén tǐ
5.2

构建论证线索与评述
大纲
Enduring UnderstandingLearning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

REO-1
Writers guide understanding of a text’s lines of reasoning and claims through that text’s organization and integration of evidence.

6.A
Writing – Develop a line of reasoning and commentary that explains it throughout an argument.

  • REO-1.M The body paragraphs of a written argument make claims, support them with evidence, and provide commentary that explains how the paragraph contributes to the reasoning of the argument.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

用于自己的写作:在写任何一段之前,先把各项主张列成一张清单。这样推理线索就摆在你眼前,你可以检查它是否在推进。

然后,针对每一项主张,有意识地按三个部分写出段落。在考场上一个有用的习惯是,让评述那句话以一个强迫产生关系的词开头——因为、这意味着、所以、其效果是——因为这些词后面接不了复述。

5.3

组织、统一性与连贯性
大纲
Enduring UnderstandingLearning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

REO-1
Writers guide understanding of a text’s lines of reasoning and claims through that text’s organization and integration of evidence.

5.B
Reading – Explain how the organization of a text creates unity and coherence and reflects a line of reasoning.

  • REO-1.N Coherence occurs at different levels in a piece of writing. In a sentence, the idea in one clause logically links to an idea in the next. In a paragraph, the idea in one sentence logically links to an idea in the next. In a text, the ideas in one paragraph logically link to the ideas in the next.
  • REO-1.O Repetition, synonyms, pronoun references, and parallel structure may indicate or develop a relationship between elements of a text.
  • REO-1.P Transitional elements are words or other elements (phrases, clauses, sentences, or paragraphs) that assist in creating coherence among sentences, paragraphs, or sections in a text by showing relationships among ideas.
  • REO-1.Q Transitional elements can be used to introduce evidence or to indicate its relationship to other ideas or evidence in that paragraph or in the text as a whole.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

连贯在三个层级上建立,并由五种被点名的手段来实现
这些手段的名称是可考的——而这正是"结构"类题目真正在问的东西

连贯发生在文章的不同层级上:

  • 在句子中,一个分句里的观点与另一个分句里的观点在逻辑上相连。
  • 在段落中,每一句都建立在前一句之上。
  • 在全文层面,每一段都与推理线索相关。

CED 随后点名了创造这些连接的各种手段:

  • 重复(repetition)、同义词(synonyms)、代词指代(pronoun references)与平行结构(parallel structure)可以标示或发展观念之间的关系。
  • 过渡成分(transitional elements)是有助于创造连贯的词语或其他成分——短语、分句、句子,乃至整个段落。
词汇表 训练
英文 中文 拼音
Repetition 重复 chóng fù
synonyms 同义词 tóng yì cí
pronoun references 代词指代 dài cí zhǐ dài
parallel structure 平行结构 píng xíng jié gòu
Transitional elements 过渡成分 guò dù chéng fèn
5.4

运用过渡衔接
大纲
Enduring UnderstandingLearning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

REO-1
Writers guide understanding of a text’s lines of reasoning and claims through that text’s organization and integration of evidence.

6.B
Writing – Use transitional elements to guide the reader through the line of reasoning of an argument.

  • REO-1.N Coherence occurs at different levels in a piece of writing. In a sentence, the idea in one clause logically links to an idea in the next. In a paragraph, the idea in one sentence logically links to an idea in the next. In a text, the ideas in one paragraph logically link to the ideas in the next.
  • REO-1.O Repetition, synonyms, pronoun references, and parallel structure may indicate or develop a relationship between elements of a text.
  • REO-1.P Transitional elements are words or other elements (phrases, clauses, sentences, or paragraphs) that assist in creating coherence among sentences, paragraphs, or sections in a text by showing relationships among ideas.
  • REO-1.Q Transitional elements can be used to introduce evidence or to indicate its relationship to other ideas or evidence in that paragraph or in the text as a whole.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

CED 明确点出了过渡的第二项工作:它们引入证据,或指出证据与其他观念或证据之间的关系。

这正是装饰性过渡与功能性过渡的分别。此外什么也没加,它只说了"这里还有一句";而即使在效果最小的那些情形中则告诉读者接下来会是什么关系。要选择承载关系信息的过渡,而不是仅仅标记分界的过渡。

还要注意,过渡成分可以是整整一段。在一篇长论证中,一个唯一职责是让推理转向的短段落是正当的,而且往往很漂亮。

5.5

用词、比喻与句法
大纲
Enduring UnderstandingLearning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

STL-1
The rhetorical situation informs the strategic stylistic choices that writers make.

7.A
Reading – Explain how word choice, comparisons, and syntax contribute to the specific tone or style of a text.

  • STL-1.A Words have both connotative and denotative meanings.
  • STL-1.B Descriptive words, such as adjectives and adverbs, not only qualify or modify the things they describe but also convey a perspective toward those things.
  • STL-1.C Precise word choice reduces confusion and may help the audience perceive the writer’s perspective.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

第五单元以三项关于用词的论断开启本课程对文体的处理:

  • 词语同时具有内涵义与外延义(connotative and denotative meanings)。外延义是词所指称的东西;内涵义是它所携带的东西。
  • 描述性词语——形容词与副词——不仅限定或修饰它们所描述的对象,还传达一种视角。
  • 精确的用词减少混淆,并帮助受众感知写作者的视角。

第二项在分析上最有用。当一篇修辞分析选文把某项政策称为雄心勃勃而不是昂贵时,没有任何事实改变,而读者的倾向改变了。这就是一项修辞选择,也正是题目要求你解释的东西。

词汇表 训练
英文 中文 拼音
connotative and denotative meanings 内涵义与外延义 nèi hán yì yǔ wài yán yì
5.6

运用词语与句法营造语气与风格
大纲
Enduring UnderstandingLearning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

STL-1
The rhetorical situation informs the strategic stylistic choices that writers make.

8.A
Writing – Strategically use words, comparisons, and syntax to convey a specific tone or style in an argument.

  • STL-1.A Words have both connotative and denotative meanings.
  • STL-1.B Descriptive words, such as adjectives and adverbs, not only qualify or modify the things they describe but also convey a perspective toward those things.
  • STL-1.C Precise word choice reduces confusion and may help the audience perceive the writer’s perspective.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

就自己的写作而言,精确比词汇量更值钱。一条具体的规则:宁取恰好准确的词,不取气派的词。阅卷人奖励的是控制力,而一个用得略微不准的浮夸词读起来正是控制力的丧失。

**Worked example(一项真实的 AP 考试任务)。*在一篇修辞分析选文中,写作者在一段里把某提案的支持者描述为「坚定的」,在下一段里则称他们「不肯让步的」。低分答案会说写作者使用了"有力的用词"。能得分的答案会解释这一转变:「两个词的外延义都是坚持,但『坚定』带着赞许,『不肯让步』带着阻挠。写作者在不改变所描述事实的情况下从一个词转到另一个词,从而在表面上只是继续描述的同时收回了对支持者的同情——于是在任何反驳被提出之前,受众的判断就已经移动了。」*这一步把内涵义、语调与对受众的作用一并完成。

5.6

考试技巧
  • 每一个主体段落:**主张、证据、评述。**丢分的几乎总是第三项。
  • 先把主张列成清单再动笔。这是看清推理是否推进的唯一办法。
  • 让评述以因为、这意味着、所以开头——这些词后面接不了复述。
  • 记住连贯手段的名称:重复、同义词、代词指代、平行结构、过渡。
  • 过渡应当承载关系,而不只是标记分界。此外通常什么也不承载。
  • 内涵义是用词分析的所在。外延义相同而倾向不同,就是一项值得解释的修辞选择。

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