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限定论证、句法与规范

AP 英语语言与写作 · 第 7 主题

训练
讲义 词汇表
7.1

修辞情境的构成要素

大纲
Enduring UnderstandingLearning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

RHS-1
Individuals write within a particular situation and make strategic writing choices based on that situation.

1.A
Reading – Identify and describe components of the rhetorical situation: the exigence, audience, writer, purpose, context, and message.

  • RHS-1.I The introduction of an argument introduces the subject and/ or writer of the argument to the audience. An introduction may present the argument’s thesis. An introduction may orient, engage, and/or focus the audience by presenting quotations, intriguing statements, anecdotes, questions, statistics, data, contextualized information, or a scenario.
  • RHS-1.J The conclusion of an argument brings the argument to a unified end. A conclusion may present the argument’s thesis. It may engage and/or focus the audience by explaining the significance of the argument within a broader context, making connections, calling the audience to act, suggesting a change in behavior or attitude, proposing a solution, leaving the audience with a compelling image, explaining implications, summarizing the argument, or connecting to the introduction.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

第七单元带着你此时积累的经验回到引言与结论,随后转向最能把合格写作与出色写作区分开的两件事:限定(qualification)与句子结构

关于引言与结论,CED 的表述没有变——引言把主题与写作者介绍给受众;结论把论证带向统一的收束,并可以呈现论点、说明其重要性,或把论证置于更广阔的语境中。

词汇表 训练
英文 中文 拼音
qualification 限定 xiàn dìng
7.2

撰写引言与结论

大纲
Enduring UnderstandingLearning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

RHS-1
Individuals write within a particular situation and make strategic writing choices based on that situation.

2.A
Writing – Write introductions and conclusions appropriate to the purpose and context of the rhetorical situation.

  • RHS-1.I The introduction of an argument introduces the subject and/ or writer of the argument to the audience. An introduction may present the argument’s thesis. An introduction may orient, engage, and/or focus the audience by presenting quotations, intriguing statements, anecdotes, questions, statistics, data, contextualized information, or a scenario.
  • RHS-1.J The conclusion of an argument brings the argument to a unified end. A conclusion may present the argument’s thesis. It may engage and/or focus the audience by explaining the significance of the argument within a broader context, making connections, calling the audience to act, suggesting a change in behavior or attitude, proposing a solution, leaving the audience with a compelling image, explaining implications, summarizing the argument, or connecting to the introduction.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

到这一阶段,有用的提升是让结论做 CED 所允许的那些工作。结论可以:

  • 说明论证的重要性——为什么它成立这件事重要;
  • 把它置于更广阔的语境中——它属于哪个更大的问题;
  • 以其最终的、此刻已被赢得的形式呈现论点

第三项在考场上最有力:用你在引言里不可能使用的措辞重述论点,因为那时论证尚未作出。

7.3

主张的限定方式

大纲
Enduring UnderstandingLearning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

CLE-1
Writers make claims about subjects, rely on evidence that supports the reasoning that justifies the claim, and often acknowledge or respond to other, possibly opposing, arguments.

3.C
Reading – Explain ways claims are qualified through modifiers, counterarguments, and alternative perspectives.

  • CLE-1.V A lack of understanding of the complexities of a subject or an issue can lead to oversimplification or generalizations.
  • CLE-1.W Because arguments are usually part of ongoing discourse, effective arguments often avoid expressing claims, reasoning, and evidence in absolute terms.
  • CLE-1.X Writers may strategically use words, phrases, and clauses as modifiers to qualify or limit the scope of an argument.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

  • 对某一主题复杂性的理解不足会导致过度简化或以偏概全(oversimplification or generalisation)。
  • 由于论证通常是持续讨论的一部分,有效的论证往往避免以绝对措辞表述主张(absolute terms)。
  • 写作者可以策略性地使用作为修饰成分的词语、短语与分句,来限定或限制论证的范围

这对许多学生而言是反直觉的,他们以为听起来更强硬的主张能得更高分。事实恰恰相反:未加限定的主张一个反例就能击倒,而经过限定的主张则能挺住。学校应当禁止手机招来的是一个例外。学校应当在教学时段限制手机使用,因为注意力的代价在这一时段是可测量的则不会。

词汇表 训练
英文 中文 拼音
oversimplification or generalisation 过度简化与以偏概全 guò dù jiǎn huà yǔ yǐ piān gài quán
avoid expressing claims in absolute terms 绝对化表述 jué duì huà biǎo shù
7.4

限定主张

大纲
Enduring UnderstandingLearning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

CLE-1
Writers make claims about subjects, rely on evidence that supports the reasoning that justifies the claim, and often acknowledge or respond to other, possibly opposing, arguments.

4.C
Writing – Qualify a claim using modifiers, counterarguments, or alternative perspectives.

  • CLE-1.V A lack of understanding of the complexities of a subject or an issue can lead to oversimplification or generalizations.
  • CLE-1.W Because arguments are usually part of ongoing discourse, effective arguments often avoid expressing claims, reasoning, and evidence in absolute terms.
  • CLE-1.X Writers may strategically use words, phrases, and clauses as modifiers to qualify or limit the scope of an argument.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

工具是些被有意使用的普通词语:在多数情况下在 X 成立之处对这一人群而言除非就……而言。每一个都把主张收窄到证据实际覆盖的范围。

限定也是思辨深度那一分最常奖励的东西。一个先表明立场、继而显示自己知道这一立场的限度、并仍然为之辩护的学生,恰恰展示了评分标准所要寻找的控制力。

7.5

分句与观点之间的关系

大纲
Enduring UnderstandingLearning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

STL-1
The rhetorical situation informs the strategic stylistic choices that writers make.

7.B
Reading – Explain how writers create, combine, and place independent and dependent clauses to show relationships between and among ideas. (Note: Students should be able to read and analyze these complexities but are not expected to write with them on timed essays.)

  • STL-1.G Writers express ideas in sentences. Sentences are made up of clauses, at least one of which must be independent.
  • STL-1.H The arrangement of sentences in a text can emphasize particular ideas.
  • STL-1.I Subordination and coordination are used to express the intended relationship between ideas in a sentence.
  • STL-1.J Writers frequently use coordination to illustrate a balance or equality between ideas.
  • STL-1.K Writers frequently use subordination to illustrate an imbalance or inequality between ideas.
  • STL-1.L The arrangement of clauses, phrases, and words in a sentence can emphasize ideas.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

连接观念的两种方式,而它们的含义不同
CED 说得很明确:并列表示均衡,从属表示不均衡
  • 写作者用句子表达观念,句子由分句构成,其中至少一个必须是独立分句(independent clause)。
  • 文本中句子的排布可以突出特定观念
  • 从属与并列(subordination and coordination)表达句内观念之间的预期关系。
  • 写作者用并列来体现观念之间的均衡或对等
  • 写作者用从属来体现观念之间的不均衡或不对等
  • 句内分句、短语与词语的排布可以突出观念

中间那两句使句子结构变得可分析,而不再只是装饰。这项措施代价高昂,而且它奏效了把成本与效果当作对等项。尽管这项措施代价高昂,它还是奏效了则使成本从属——它依然为真,但已被排在结果之下。同样的事实,不同的论证。

词汇表 训练
英文 中文 拼音
independent 独立分句 dú lì fēn jù
Subordination and coordination 从属与并列 cóng shǔ yǔ bìng liè
7.6

写出清晰的句子

大纲
Enduring UnderstandingLearning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

STL-1
The rhetorical situation informs the strategic stylistic choices that writers make.

8.B
Writing – Write sentences that clearly convey ideas and arguments.

  • STL-1.G Writers express ideas in sentences. Sentences are made up of clauses, at least one of which must be independent.
  • STL-1.H The arrangement of sentences in a text can emphasize particular ideas.
  • STL-1.I Subordination and coordination are used to express the intended relationship between ideas in a sentence.
  • STL-1.J Writers frequently use coordination to illustrate a balance or equality between ideas.
  • STL-1.K Writers frequently use subordination to illustrate an imbalance or inequality between ideas.
  • STL-1.L The arrangement of clauses, phrases, and words in a sentence can emphasize ideas.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

用于自己的写作:先确定关系,再选择表达这一关系的结构。如果两个观念确实分量相当,就把它们并列。如果其中一个是让步、另一个是你的要点,就让让步从属——并把你的要点放进独立分句,重心落在那里。

7.7

语法规范与表达清晰度

大纲
Enduring UnderstandingLearning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

STL-1
The rhetorical situation informs the strategic stylistic choices that writers make.

7.C
Reading – Explain how grammar and mechanics contribute to the clarity and effectiveness of an argument.

  • STL-1.M Grammar and mechanics that follow established conventions of language enable clear communication.
  • STL-1.N Writers use punctuation strategically to demonstrate the relationships among ideas in a sentence.
  • STL-1.O Punctuation (commas, colons, semicolons, dashes, hyphens, parentheses, quotation marks, or end marks) advances a writer’s purpose by clarifying, organizing, emphasizing, indicating purpose, supplementing information, or contributing to tone.
  • STL-1.P Some design features, such as italics or boldface, create emphasis.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

  • 遵循既定惯例的语法与格式(grammar and mechanics)使清晰的交流成为可能
  • 写作者策略性地使用标点来显示观念之间的关系。
  • 标点——逗号、冒号、分号、破折号、连字符、括号、引号、句末符号——推进论证
  • 版面手段斜体或粗体制造强调。
7.8

语法与书写规范

大纲
Enduring UnderstandingLearning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

STL-1
The rhetorical situation informs the strategic stylistic choices that writers make.

8.C
Use established conventions of grammar and mechanics to communicate clearly and effectively.

  • STL-1.M Grammar and mechanics that follow established conventions of language enable clear communication.
  • STL-1.N Writers use punctuation strategically to demonstrate the relationships among ideas in a sentence.
  • STL-1.O Punctuation (commas, colons, semicolons, dashes, hyphens, parentheses, quotation marks, or end marks) advances a writer’s purpose by clarifying, organizing, emphasizing, indicating purpose, supplementing information, or contributing to tone.
  • STL-1.P Some design features, such as italics or boldface, create emphasis.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

可考的框架是:标点是论证性的,而不只是正确与否的问题。冒号承诺其后的内容将解释其前的内容。分号断言两个独立陈述属于一处。破折号打断,而这一打断本身就是要点。

**Worked example(一项真实的 AP 考试任务)。**一篇修辞分析选文写道:*「这一项目很受欢迎;按照该部门自己提出的每一项标准,它也是无效的。」低分答案会说"写作者使用了分号"。能得分的答案会解释这一结构:「分号把两项事实呈现为对等而同时的,而不是呈现为对照,因此读者无法把这一失败当作对'受欢迎'的反驳打发掉——两者只是同时为真。随后的插入成分『按照该部门自己提出的每一项标准』在『无效』一词到来之前,先切断了该部门的退路。」*这就是把句法当作论证来分析。

7.8

考试技巧

  • **限定你的主张。**绝对化的主张一个反例就被击倒,经过限定的则不会。
  • 限定是通往思辨深度那一分最可靠的路径。
  • **并列 = 均衡。从属 = 不均衡。**CED 就是这么说的,而这使句法变得可分析。
  • 把你的要点放进独立分句。让步属于从属分句。
  • 标点推进论证。冒号解释,分号以对等身份连接,破折号打断。
  • 绝不要只写"写作者使用了分号",而不说明它断言了什么关系

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