剑桥 IGCSE IGCSE, A-Level & AP 练习单预览

第九时期：1980年至今

AP 美国历史 · 第 9 主题

训练
讲义 词汇表
9.1 9.2

第九时期的时代背景
大纲

9.1 Contextualizing Period 9

Learning ObjectivePreview: Unit 9 Key Concepts

Unit 9.A
Explain the context in which the United States faced international and domestic challenges after 1980.

  • KC-9.1 A newly ascendant conservative movement achieved several political and policy goals during the 1980s and continued to strongly influence public discourse in the following decades.
    • KC-9.1.I Conservative beliefs regarding the need for traditional social values and a reduced role for government advanced in U.S. politics after 1980.
  • KC-9.2 Moving into the 21st century, the nation experienced significant technological, economic, and demographic changes.
    • KC-9.2.I New developments in science and technology enhanced the economy and transformed society, while manufacturing decreased.
    • KC-9.2.II The U.S. population continued to undergo demographic shifts that had significant cultural and political consequences.
  • KC-9.3 The end of the Cold War and new challenges to U.S. leadership forced the nation to redefine its foreign policy and role in the world.
    • KC-9.3.I The Reagan administration promoted an interventionist foreign policy that continued in later administrations, even after the end of the Cold War.
    • KC-9.3.II Following the attacks of September 11, 2001, U.S. foreign policy efforts focused on fighting terrorism around the world.

9.2 Reagan and Conservatism

Thematic FocusLearning ObjectiveHistorical Developments

PCE
Politics and Power — Debates fostered by social and political groups about the role of government in American social, political, and economic life shape government policy, institutions, political parties, and the rights of citizens.

Unit 9.B
Explain the causes and effects of continuing policy debates about the role of the federal government over time.

  • KC-9.1.I.A Ronald Reagan’s victory in the presidential election of 1980 represented an important milestone, allowing conservatives to enact significant tax cuts and continue the deregulation of many industries.
  • KC-9.1.I.B Conservatives argued that liberal programs were counterproductive in fighting poverty and stimulating economic growth. Some of their efforts to reduce the size and scope of government met with inertia and liberal opposition, as many programs remained popular with voters.
  • KC-9.1.I.C Policy debates continued over free-trade agreements, the scope of the government social safety net, and calls to reform the U.S. financial system.
  • KC-9.1.I Conservative beliefs regarding the need for traditional social values and a reduced role for government advanced in U.S. politics after 1980.
  • KC-9.2.II.C Intense political and cultural debates continued over issues such as immigration policy, diversity, gender roles, and family structures.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

第九时期从 1980 年延续至今。它的专题不多,涵盖面却很广,而考试把它视为贯穿整门课程的那些争论的总汇:政府规模、国家的世界角色,以及谁算是这个国家的完整成员。

在 20 世纪 60 与 70 年代组织起来的保守主义运动(conservative movement)随里根(Ronald Reagan)上台执政。其纲领有三条线索:

  • 减税与放松管制(tax cuts and deregulation),理由是减轻企业负担可以提高增长——通常称为供给学派经济学(supply-side economics)。
  • 削减国内项目的联邦开支,不过国防开支(defence spending)大幅上升,赤字随之扩大。
  • 诉诸社会保守主义(social conservatism),议题涉及宗教、家庭与法律秩序。

其结果是辩论前提发生了持久转移:1980 年之后,两党围绕联邦政府经济角色的争论范围,比新政以来任何时候都更为狭窄。

词汇表 训练
英文 中文 拼音
conservative movement 保守主义运动 bǎo shǒu zhǔ yì yùn dòng
Ronald Reagan 里根 lǐ gēn
Tax cuts and deregulation 减税与放松管制 jiǎn shuì yǔ fàng sōng guǎn zhì
supply-side economics 供给学派经济学 gōng jǐ xué pài jīng jì xué
defence spending 国防开支 guó fáng kāi zhī
social conservatism 社会保守主义 shè huì bǎo shǒu zhǔ yì
9.3

冷战的终结
大纲

9.3 The End of the Cold War

Thematic FocusLearning ObjectiveHistorical Developments

WOR
America in the World — Diplomatic, economic, cultural, and military interactions between empires, nations, and peoples shape the development of America and America’s increasingly important role in the world.

Unit 9.C
Explain the causes and effects of the end of the Cold War and its legacy.

  • KC-9.3.I.A Reagan asserted U.S. opposition to communism through speeches, diplomatic efforts, limited military interventions, and a buildup of nuclear and conventional weapons.
  • KC-9.3.I.B Increased U.S. military spending, Reagan’s diplomatic initiatives, and political changes and economic problems in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union were all important in ending the Cold War.
  • KC-9.3.I.C The end of the Cold War led to new diplomatic relationships but also new U.S. military and peacekeeping interventions, as well as continued debates over the appropriate use of American power in the world.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

重新展开的军备扩张、谈判,以及最重要的苏联内部的衰弱,使冷战走向终结。苏联体制在 1989 至 1991 年间瓦解。

其后果界定了随后的数十年:美国成为唯一的超级大国,却留下了何时何地干预(when and where to intervene)这一悬而未决的问题,以及在遏制不再统摄政策之后,哪些承诺仍然合理。

词汇表 训练
英文 中文 拼音
when and where to intervene 何时何地干预 hé shí hé dì gān yù
9.4

变化中的经济
大纲

9.4 A Changing Economy

Thematic FocusLearning ObjectiveHistorical Developments

WXT
Work, Exchange, and Technology — The interplay between markets, private enterprise, labor, technology, and government policy shape the American economy. In turn, economic activity shapes society and government policy and drives technological innovation.

Unit 9.D
Explain the causes and effects of economic and technological change over time.

  • KC-9.2.I.A Economic productivity increased as improvements in digital communications enabled increased American participation in worldwide economic opportunities.
  • KC-9.2.I.B Technological innovations in computing, digital mobile technology, and the internet transformed daily life, increased access to information, and led to new social behaviors and networks.
  • KC-9.2.I.C Employment increased in service sectors and decreased in manufacturing, and union membership declined.
  • KC-9.2.I.D Real wages stagnated for the working and middle class amid growing economic inequality.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

1980 年之后的经济被三股力量重塑:

  • 全球化(globalization)——贸易协定、一体化的供应链,以及把制造业推向海外的竞争。
  • 去工业化(deindustrialization)——老工业地区制造业就业流失,服务业工作增长。
  • 技术变革(technological change)——计算机以及随后的互联网,改变了生产率、工作与沟通方式。

这些力量共同提高了总体财富,却也扩大了收入不平等(income inequality),并降低了衰退行业中劳动者的保障水平——这正是此后主导政治的经济争论。

词汇表 训练
英文 中文 拼音
Globalization 全球化 quán qiú huà
Deindustrialization 去工业化 qù gōng yè huà
Technological change 技术变革 jì shù biàn gé
income inequality 收入不平等 shōu rù bù píng děng
9.5

20世纪90年代与21世纪初的人口迁移与移民
大纲

9.5 Migration and Immigration in the 1990s and 2000s

Thematic FocusLearning ObjectiveHistorical Developments

MIG
Migration and Settlement — Push and pull factors shape immigration to and migration within America, and the demographic change as a result of these moves shapes the migrants, society, and the environment.

Unit 9.E
Explain the causes and effects of domestic and international migration over time.

  • KC-9.2.II.A After 1980, the political, economic, and cultural influence of the American South and West continued to increase as population shifted to those areas.
  • KC-9.2.II.B International migration from Latin America and Asia increased dramatically. The new immigrants affected U.S. culture in many ways and supplied the economy with an important labor force.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

20 世纪 90 年代与 21 世纪初的人口迁移与移民(migration and immigration)继续重塑人口结构;在 1965 年移民法改革之后,来自拉丁美洲与亚洲(Latin America and Asia)的移民增加。

考点在于其后果:南部与西部人口增长、多族裔城市的成长、围绕移民政策(immigration policy)与边境执法的持续争论,以及关于公民身份(citizenship)与国家认同的持续辩论——这正是本课程自重建时期以来一直追踪的同一场争论。

词汇表 训练
英文 中文 拼音
Migration and immigration 人口迁移与移民 rén kǒu qiān yí yǔ yí mín
Latin America and Asia 拉丁美洲与亚洲 lā dīng měi zhōu yǔ yà zhōu
immigration policy 移民政策 yí mín zhèng cè
citizenship 公民身份 gōng mín shēn fèn
9.6

21世纪的挑战
大纲

9.6 Challenges of the 21st Century

Thematic FocusLearning ObjectiveHistorical Developments

WOR
America in the World — Diplomatic, economic, cultural, and military interactions between empires, nations, and peoples shape the development of America and America’s increasingly important role in the world.

Unit 9.F
Explain the causes and effects of the domestic and international challenges the United States has faced in the 21st century.

  • KC-9.3.II.A In the wake of attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon in 2001, the United States launched military efforts against terrorism and lengthy, controversial conflicts in Afghanistan and Iraq.
  • KC-9.3.II.B The war on terrorism sought to improve security within the United States but also raised questions about the protection of civil liberties and human rights.
  • KC-9.3.II.C Conflicts in the Middle East and concerns about climate change led to debates over U.S. dependence on fossil fuels and the impact of economic consumption on the environment.
  • KC-9.3.II.D Despite economic and foreign policy challenges, the United States continued as the world’s leading superpower in the 21st century.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

本时期后段的专题围绕少数几项发展展开:

  • 九一一袭击(September 11 attacks)及其应对——海外军事干预、新的安全机构体系,以及关于安全与公民自由(security and civil liberties)之间平衡的再度争论。
  • 2008 年的经济危机,以及关于政府在稳定经济中所应扮演角色的争论。
  • 因媒体与传播方式变化而被放大的政治极化(political polarisation)。
  • 关于气候与能源(climate and energy)政策的辩论。
词汇表 训练
英文 中文 拼音
September 11 attacks 九一一袭击 jiǔ yī yī xí jī
security and civil liberties 安全与公民自由 ān quán yǔ gōng mín zì yóu
Political polarisation 政治极化 zhèng zhì jí huà
climate and energy 气候与能源 qì hòu yǔ néng yuán
9.7

第九时期的因果关系
大纲

9.7 Causation in Period 9

Learning ObjectiveReview: Unit 9 Key Concepts

Unit 9.G
Explain the relative significance of the effects of change in the period after 1980 on American national identity.

  • KC-9.1 A newly ascendant conservative movement achieved several political and policy goals during the 1980s and continued to strongly influence public discourse in the following decades.
    • KC-9.1.I Conservative beliefs regarding the need for traditional social values and a reduced role for government advanced in U.S. politics after 1980.
  • KC-9.2 Moving into the 21st century, the nation experienced significant technological, economic, and demographic changes.
    • KC-9.2.I New developments in science and technology enhanced the economy and transformed society, while manufacturing decreased.
    • KC-9.2.II The U.S. population continued to undergo demographic shifts that had significant cultural and political consequences.
  • KC-9.3 The end of the Cold War and new challenges to U.S. leadership forced the nation to redefine its foreign policy and role in the world.
    • KC-9.3.I The Reagan administration promoted an interventionist foreign policy that continued in later administrations, even after the end of the Cold War.
    • KC-9.3.II Following the attacks of September 11, 2001, U.S. foreign policy efforts focused on fighting terrorism around the world.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

本时期考查的推理能力是因果关系,而最有用的做法是把近期的发展与更早的发展连接起来:把去工业化与市场革命中的区域专业化相连,把移民争论与 19 世纪 50 年代和 20 世纪 20 年代的排外主义相连,把关于联邦权力的争论与新政相连。

Worked example(一道真实的 AP 考题)。2026 年的长文章题要求「评估 20 世纪美国女性参与公共生活的状况在多大程度上发生了变化」*。有力的论点会区分变化的类型*及其时间节奏:「20 世纪美国女性参与公共生活发生了实质性变化:选举权、战时就业与妇女运动打开了政治与职业空间;不过职业隔离与同工不同酬意味着,这种参与在法律上的扩展快于在经济权力上的扩展。」注意其结构:面对跨度很长的题目,论点必须说明是哪一类变化以及它在何处止步,唯有如此才能使用多个时期的证据,而不是把它们复述一遍。

9.7

考试技巧
  • 把供给学派经济学定义为一种主张(减税以提高增长),并指出随之而来的赤字——两者都属于评价的一部分。
  • 冷战终结的意义在于它开启了什么:唯一超级大国的地位,以及关于干预的悬而未决的问题。
  • 把全球化、去工业化与技术变革当作三个不同的原因,不要混为一谈。
  • 谈 1965 年之后的移民,要点出来源构成的转变及其引发的政治争论。
  • 2001 年之后的考点张力是安全与公民自由——这与红色恐慌和一战时期是同一种张力。
  • 跨时期题目奖励把各时期连接起来。把一项近期发展与更早的发展相连,并说明什么得以延续。

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