剑桥 IGCSE IGCSE, A-Level & AP 练习单预览

发展与学习

AP 心理学 · 第 3 主题

训练
讲义 词汇表
3.1

发展心理学的主题与研究方法
大纲
Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

3.1.A
Explain how enduring themes inform developmental psychology.

  • 3.1.A.1 Developmental psychology is concerned with both chronological order of development and/ or thematic issues in development across the lifespan. Thematic issues of interest to developmental psychologists include stability and change, nature and nurture, and continuous and discontinuous stages of development.

3.1.B
Describe ways cross-sectional and longitudinal research design methods used in developmental psychology inform understanding about behavior and mental processes.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

发展心理学(developmental psychology)研究人在一生中如何变化。整个单元贯穿两个问题。

  • 变化是连续的(continuous,渐进而平滑)还是不连续的(discontinuous,分阶段进行)?
  • 某项特征在一生中是稳定的(stable),还是会发生改变?

研究者用两种设计来回答。横断研究(cross-sectional study)在同一时间比较不同年龄组——快,但差异可能来自各组不同的成长年代。纵向研究(longitudinal study)追踪同一批人多年——慢,但能显示个体内部的真实变化。

词汇表 训练
英文 中文 拼音
Developmental psychology 发展心理学 fā zhǎn xīn lǐ xué
continuous 连续的 lián xù de
discontinuous 不连续的 bù lián xù de
stable 稳定的 wěn dìng de
cross-sectional study 横断研究 héng duàn yán jiū
longitudinal study 纵向研究 zòng xiàng yán jiū
3.2

毕生的生理发展
大纲
Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

3.2.A
Explain how physical development before birth applies to behavior and mental processes.

  • 3.2.A.1 Teratogens, maternal illness, genetic mutations, hormonal, and environmental factors can influence the major physical and psychological milestones that occur during prenatal development.
    • Exclusion Statement: The stages of prenatal development (zygote, embryo, and fetus) are outside the scope of the AP Psychology Exam.

3.2.B
Explain how physical development in infancy and childhood apply to behavior and mental processes.

  • 3.2.B.1 Physical development in infancy and childhood happens in generally the same order, but the timing of the development can vary. The development of fine and gross motor coordination is among the major physical and psychological milestones that define infancy and childhood. These physical skills develop as children mature, allowing children to develop critical skills needed to become more independent.
  • 3.2.B.2 Infants possess reflexes, like the rooting reflex, that indicate on-track physical and psychological milestone development.
  • 3.2.B.3 Research using the visual cliff apparatus demonstrates an early ability in infants to perceive depth and an innovative way to assess infant responses.
  • 3.2.B.4 Research suggests that critical or sensitive periods in infancy and childhood have strong developmental effects, especially for skills such as language. Some non-human animals will imprint on the first object they encounter as a means of survival.

3.2.C
Explain how physical development in adolescence applies to behavior and mental processes.

  • 3.2.C.1 The main physical and psychological milestones that occur in adolescence are the adolescent growth spurt and puberty, in which reproductive ability develops. Adolescents develop primary and secondary sex characteristics during this time, such as menarche and spermarche.

3.2.D
Explain how physical development in adulthood applies to behavior and mental processes.

  • 3.2.D.1 Adulthood spans most of the lifespan and is characterized by a general leveling off and then a varying decline in reproductive ability (i.e., menopause), mobility, flexibility, reaction time, and visual and auditory sensory acuity.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

出生前的发展可能被致畸物(teratogens,如酒精等有害因素)、母亲的疾病、基因突变,以及激素或环境因素所干扰。

婴儿的生理发展在各地遵循大致相同的顺序,只是速度不同。新生儿具有表明发展正常的反射(reflexes),例如觅食反射(rooting reflex,面颊被触碰时转向该侧)。视崖(visual cliff)实验表明婴儿很早就能知觉深度。

关键期(critical period)是某种经验产生异常强烈影响的时间窗口;敏感期(sensitive period)是同一想法较为宽松的版本。

青春期(adolescence)带来青春期发育突增(adolescent growth spurt)和青春发育期(puberty),包括第一性征(primary sex characteristics)与第二性征(secondary sex characteristics)。成年期占据人生的大部分时间,其特点是先趋于平稳,随后逐渐衰退——女性会经历更年期(menopause)。

词汇表 训练
英文 中文 拼音
teratogens 致畸物 zhì jī wù
reflexes 反射 fǎn shè
rooting reflex 觅食反射 mì shí fǎn shè
visual cliff 视崖 shì yá
critical period 关键期 guān jiàn qī
sensitive period 敏感期 mǐn gǎn qī
Adolescence 青春期 qīng chūn qī
adolescent growth spurt 青春期发育突增 qīng chūn qī fā yù tū zēng
puberty 青春发育期 qīng chūn fā yù qī
primary sex characteristics 第一性征 dì yī xìng zhēng
secondary sex characteristics 第二性征 dì èr xìng zhēng
menopause 更年期 gēng nián qī
Sex 生理性别 shēng lǐ xìng bié
3.3

性别与性取向
大纲
Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

3.3.A
Describe how sex and gender influence socialization and other aspects of development.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

生理性别(sex)指生物学特征,社会性别(gender)指社会赋予这些特征的角色与期待。性别角色(gender roles)通过社会化(socialization)习得:家庭、学校、同伴与媒体都在传递什么行为是被期待的。性取向(sexual orientation)描述一个人较为稳定的吸引模式。考试考查的是性别如何影响社会化与发展,而不是对个体作出任何评价。

词汇表 训练
英文 中文 拼音
gender 社会性别 shè huì xìng bié
Gender roles 性别角色 xìng bié jué sè
socialization 社会化 shè huì huà
Sexual orientation 性取向 xìng qǔ xiàng
3.4

毕生的认知发展
大纲
Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

3.4.A
Explain how theories of cognitive development apply to behavior and mental processes.

  • 3.4.A.1 According to Piaget, children develop schemas via continuous and discontinuous processes such as assimilation and accommodation.
    • 3.4.A.1.i The sensorimotor stage occurs from infancy through toddlerhood. Object permanence develops during this stage.
    • 3.4.A.1.ii The preoperational stage occurs from toddlerhood through early childhood. Children become proficient in using mental symbols and engage in pretend play. The preoperational stage is identified more by cognitive tasks children cannot perform such as conservation and reversibility, or by those they exhibit, such as animism and egocentrism. Children begin to develop a theory of mind during this stage.
    • 3.4.A.1.iii The concrete operational stage occurs from early through late childhood. Children in this stage can generally correct the cognitive errors made in the preoperational stage and understand the world in logical, realistic, and straightforward ways, but struggle to think systematically.
    • 3.4.A.1.iv The formal operational stage occurs from late childhood through adulthood. People in this stage gain the ability to think abstractly and hypothetically. Piaget proposed that not all people achieve formal operational thinking.
  • 3.4.A.2 According to Vygotsky, children are social learners who learn through interacting with and scaffolding by other people within sociocultural contexts. Ideally, learning occurs while the person is in their zone of proximal development.
  • 3.4.A.3 Adults experience changes in cognitive capabilities as they progress through the lifespan. Crystallized intelligence remains relatively stable through adulthood while fluid intelligence tends to wane as people age. Cognitive disorders that affect adults include dementia.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

皮亚杰的四个阶段呈阶梯上升,每一级标出年龄段以及定义该阶段的能力
皮亚杰的四个阶段,每个阶段由儿童新获得的能力来定义

皮亚杰(Piaget)提出儿童会建立图式,并经历四个阶段:

  • 感知运动阶段(sensorimotor stage,婴儿期至学步期):儿童通过感官与动作学习,并发展出客体永久性(object permanence)——知道被藏起来的物体依然存在。
  • 前运算阶段(preoperational stage,学步期至幼儿期):儿童会使用符号并进行假装游戏,但表现出自我中心(egocentrism,难以采纳他人视角),也尚未获得守恒(conservation,知道形状改变时数量不变)。
  • 具体运算阶段(concrete operational stage,幼儿期至童年后期):儿童能对具体事物进行逻辑推理,并获得守恒能力。
  • 形式运算阶段(formal operational stage,童年后期以后):抽象与假设性推理成为可能。

维果茨基(Vygotsky)把儿童看作社会性学习者。最近发展区(zone of proximal development)是儿童独自能做到的与在帮助下能做到的之间的差距;支架(scaffolding)就是弥合这一差距的支持。

成人的认知同样会变化,第二单元的流体/晶体之分在此再次出现:推理速度下降,而积累的知识不会。痴呆(dementia)则是超出正常衰老范围的衰退。

词汇表 训练
英文 中文 拼音
Piaget 皮亚杰 pí yà jié
Sensorimotor stage 感知运动阶段 gǎn zhī yùn dòng jiē duàn
object permanence 客体永久性 kè tǐ yǒng jiǔ xìng
Preoperational stage 前运算阶段 qián yùn suàn jiē duàn
egocentrism 自我中心 zì wǒ zhōng xīn
conservation 守恒 shǒu héng
Concrete operational stage 具体运算阶段 jù tǐ yùn suàn jiē duàn
Formal operational stage 形式运算阶段 xíng shì yùn suàn jiē duàn
Vygotsky 维果茨基 wéi guǒ cí jī
zone of proximal development 最近发展区 zuì jìn fā zhǎn qū
scaffolding 支架 zhī jià
Dementia 痴呆 chī dāi
3.5

沟通与语言发展
大纲
Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

3.5.A
Explain how key components of language and communication apply to behavior and mental processes.

  • 3.5.A.1 Language is a shared (mutually agreed upon) system of arbitrary symbols (often expressed as and combined into phonemes, morphemes, and semantics) that are rule-governed (via grammar and syntax) and generative to produce an infinity of ideas.
    • Exclusion Statement: Pragmatics of language are outside the scope of the AP Psychology Exam.

3.5.B
Explain how language develops in humans.

  • 3.5.B.1 In language development across all cultures, people use nonverbal manual gestures (e.g., pointing) to communicate and develop formal language through specific stages (cooing, babbling, one-word stage, and telegraphic speech). People learning a language often make errors such as overgeneralization of language rules as they learn.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

语言(language)是一套用于交流的、共同约定的任意符号系统。其发展遵循共同顺序:先是非言语的手势(gestures),然后是咕咕声(cooing)、咿呀语(babbling)、单词阶段(one-word stage),再到电报式语言(telegraphic speech,两词组合)。

儿童先掌握规则,后掌握例外,于是出现过度规则化(overgeneralization)——把 went 说成 "goed"。这恰恰证明他们在学规则,而不只是模仿。

词汇表 训练
英文 中文 拼音
Language 语言 yǔ yán
gestures 手势 shǒu shì
cooing 咕咕声 gū gū shēng
babbling 咿呀语 yī yā yǔ
one-word stage 单词阶段 dān cí jiē duàn
telegraphic speech 电报式语言 diàn bào shì yǔ yán
overgeneralization 过度规则化 guò dù guī zé huà
Generalization 泛化 fàn huà
3.6

毕生的社会性与情绪发展
大纲
Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

3.6.A
Explain how social development relates to behavior and mental processes.

  • 3.6.A.1 The ecological systems theory explores how the social environment influences development. The five systems in this theory are as follows: Bullet Microsystem (groups that have direct contact with the individual) Bullet Mesosystem (the relationships between groups in the microsystem) Bullet Exosystem (indirect factors in an individual’s life) Bullet Macrosystem (cultural events that affect the individuals and others around them) Bullet Chronosystem (the individual’s current stage of life).
  • 3.6.A.2 Research has identified different parenting styles of caregivers, including authoritarian, authoritative, and permissive. Cultural differences exist in the ways these parenting styles affect outcomes in caregivers and children.
  • 3.6.A.3 Research has identified different attachment styles demonstrated by infants and children, which vary by culture. The types of attachment infants and children display include secure and insecure (avoidant, anxious, and disorganized). Temperament is related to how children attach to caregivers.
    • 3.6.A.3.i Separation anxiety occurs when children express heightened anxiety or fear when away from a caregiver or in the presence of a stranger.
    • 3.6.A.3.ii Studies with monkeys demonstrate the importance of comfort over food in attachment.
  • 3.6.A.4 Developmental psychologists study how peer relationships develop over time.
    • 3.6.A.4.i Children engage with peers via play (parallel and pretend).
    • 3.6.A.4.ii Adolescents gradually rely more on peer relationships as they age. As adolescents interact with peers, they demonstrate a type of egocentrism that is often demonstrated via the imaginary audience and the personal fable.
  • 3.6.A.5 Developmental psychologists study how adults develop socially over time.
    • 3.6.A.5.i Culture plays a role in determining when adulthood begins and when major life events occur (social clock). Some cultures allow for a time of emerging adulthood as a transition from adolescence to adulthood.
    • 3.6.A.5.ii Relationships with other adults result in adults forming families or family-like relationships that should provide mutual support and care. Childhood attachment styles can affect how adults form attachments to other adults.
  • 3.6.A.6 The stage theory of psychosocial development, which was a reconceptualization of the psychosexual theory, proposes that people must resolve psychosocial conflicts at each stage of the lifespan. The stages are as follows: Bullet Trust and mistrust Bullet Autonomy and shame and doubt Bullet Initiative and guilt Bullet Industry and inferiority Bullet Identity and role confusion Bullet Intimacy and isolation Bullet Generativity and stagnation Bullet Integrity and despair
    • Exclusion Statement: The psychosexual stage theory of development is outside of the scope of the AP Psychology Exam.
  • 3.6.A.7 The experience of adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) has effects on relationships people form throughout the lifespan. Sociocultural differences exist in what is considered an ACE and how ACEs affect outcomes people may experience.
  • 3.6.A.8 Adolescents develop a sense of identity for who they will be as an adult through the processes of achievement, diffusion, foreclosure, and moratorium. Identity development also includes processes for developing identities such as racial/ethnic identity, gender identity, sexual orientation, religious identity, occupational identity, and familial identity, often through considering possible selves.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

生态系统理论(ecological systems theory)把发展描述为层层嵌套的环境,从最贴近的家庭一直向外延伸到文化。

研究区分出不同的教养方式(parenting styles):专制型(authoritarian,要求高、温情低)、权威型(authoritative,要求高、温情高)和放任型(permissive,要求低、温情高)。

依恋(attachment)是婴儿与照料者之间的情感联结,用陌生情境(strange situation)程序来研究。类型包括安全型依恋(secure attachment)以及不安全型(回避型(avoidant)、焦虑型(anxious)、混乱型(disorganized))。分离焦虑(separation anxiety)是离开照料者时的强烈不安。以猴子为对象的研究显示,幼崽更偏好接触安慰(contact comfort)而非食物,这改变了人们对依恋的理解。

同伴关系在童年通过平行游戏(parallel play)和假装游戏(pretend play)发展,青少年则随年龄增长越来越依赖同伴。

埃里克森(Erikson)提出了心理社会发展(psychosocial development)的阶段理论,每个阶段都提出一个需要解决的冲突——青少年阶段是同一性与角色混乱(identity versus role confusion)。童年不良经历(adverse childhood experiences, ACEs)会影响日后的人际关系与健康。

词汇表 训练
英文 中文 拼音
Ecological systems theory 生态系统理论 shēng tài xì tǒng lǐ lùn
parenting styles 教养方式 jiào yǎng fāng shì
authoritarian 专制型 zhuān zhì xíng
authoritative 权威型 quán wēi xíng
permissive 放任型 fàng rèn xíng
Attachment 依恋 yī liàn
strange situation 陌生情境 mò shēng qíng jìng
secure attachment 安全型依恋 ān quán xíng yī liàn
avoidant 回避型 huí bì xíng
anxious 焦虑型 jiāo lǜ xíng
disorganized 混乱型 hùn luàn xíng
Separation anxiety 分离焦虑 fēn lí jiāo lǜ
contact comfort 接触安慰 jiē chù ān wèi
parallel play 平行游戏 píng xíng yóu xì
pretend play 假装游戏 jiǎ zhuāng yóu xì
Erikson 埃里克森 āi lǐ kè sēn
psychosocial development 心理社会发展 xīn lǐ shè huì fā zhǎn
identity versus role confusion 同一性与角色混乱 tóng yī xìng yǔ jué sè hùn luàn
Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) 童年不良经历 tóng nián bù liáng jīng lì
3.7

经典条件作用
大纲
Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

3.7.A
Explain how classical conditioning applies to behavior and mental processes.

  • 3.7.A.1 The behavioral perspective evolved from theories about learning via conditioning. Behaviorists have traditionally focused on observable behavior to the exclusion of mental processes.
  • 3.7.A.2 Classical conditioning focuses on the association of one stimulus with another stimulus to elicit a response. Learning the association (also known as acquisition) involves a series of steps that demonstrate principles of associative learning.
    • 3.7.A.2.i The unconditioned stimulus (UCS) elicits an unconditioned response (UCR). This response becomes the conditioned response (CR) when it is performed in response to the conditioned stimulus (CS).
    • 3.7.A.2.ii The order of presentation of the CS with the UCS is important to successful acquisition.
    • 3.7.A.2.iii A CR can become extinct when the CS is no longer paired with the UCS. A formerly extinct CR can be spontaneously recovered when the CS is again presented after extinction.
    • 3.7.A.2.iv Stimulus discrimination and generalization have been demonstrated in studies of classical conditioning.
    • 3.7.A.2.v A CS can be used as a UCS in higher-order conditioning.
      • Exclusion Statement: Delayed conditioning, trace conditioning, simultaneous conditioning, and backward conditioning are outside the scope of the AP Psychology Exam.
  • 3.7.A.3 Research has demonstrated that emotional responses can be classically conditioned. These findings form the basis of therapeutic interventions for many mental disorders, such as counterconditioning.
    • Exclusion Statement: The expectancy theory is outside the scope of the AP Psychology Exam.
  • 3.7.A.4 Research on taste aversions, which are acquired through classical conditioning, demonstrates one-trial conditioning and biological preparedness. One-trial learning occurs when the association is acquired through one pairing of the stimulus and response and is not strengthened by further pairings. Biological preparedness refers to how animals are biologically predisposed to learning certain stimulus-response pairings more quickly than others.
  • 3.7.A.5 Habituation occurs when organisms grow accustomed to and exhibit a diminished response to a repeated or enduring stimulus.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

行为主义视角(behavioral perspective)用学习而非思维来解释行为。

经典条件作用(classical conditioning)把一个刺激与另一个刺激联系起来:

  • 无条件刺激(unconditioned stimulus, UCS)自然引发无条件反应(unconditioned response, UCR)——食物引起唾液分泌。
  • 与 UCS 配对的中性刺激(neutral stimulus)会变成条件刺激(conditioned stimulus, CS),引发条件反应(conditioned response, CR)。
  • 习得(acquisition)取决于配对的顺序与时间间隔。
  • 当 CS 不再与 UCS 配对时会发生消退(extinction);自发恢复(spontaneous recovery)是已消退的 CR 重新出现。
  • 泛化(generalization)是对相似刺激也作出反应;刺激辨别(stimulus discrimination)是只对特定 CS 作出反应。
  • 在高级条件作用(higher-order conditioning)中,已建立的 CS 可充当新的 UCS。

情绪反应可以被条件化,而味觉厌恶(taste aversion)表明某些联结一次即可形成,因为这有利于生存。习惯化(habituation)是对反复出现的刺激反应减弱。

词汇表 训练
英文 中文 拼音
behavioral perspective 行为主义视角 xíng wéi zhǔ yì shì jiǎo
Classical conditioning 经典条件作用 jīng diǎn tiáo jiàn zuò yòng
unconditioned stimulus (UCS) 无条件刺激 wú tiáo jiàn cì jī
unconditioned response (UCR) 无条件反应 wú tiáo jiàn fǎn yìng
neutral stimulus 中性刺激 zhōng xìng cì jī
conditioned stimulus (CS) 条件刺激 tiáo jiàn cì jī
conditioned response (CR) 条件反应 tiáo jiàn fǎn yìng
Acquisition 习得 xí dé
Extinction 消退 xiāo tuì
spontaneous recovery 自发恢复 zì fā huī fù
stimulus discrimination 刺激辨别 cì jī biàn bié
higher-order conditioning 高级条件作用 gāo jí tiáo jiàn zuò yòng
taste aversion 味觉厌恶 wèi jué yàn wù
Habituation 习惯化 xí guàn huà
3.8

操作性条件作用
大纲
Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

3.8.A
Explain how operant conditioning applies to behavior and mental processes.

  • 3.8.A.1 Operant conditioning focuses on associating consequences (reinforcement and punishment) with behaviors. The Law of Effect states that behaviors with reinforcing consequences are more likely to be repeated while behaviors with punishing consequences are not as likely to be repeated.
  • 3.8.A.2 Reinforcement and punishment can be positive or negative. Reinforcers can be primary or secondary. Reinforcement discrimination and generalization have been demonstrated in studies of operant conditioning.
  • 3.8.A.3 Reinforcement can be used to shape behavior (“shaping”) gradually through rewarding successive approximations of the desired behavior. Research with animals shows that only certain behaviors can be shaped through reinforcement (known as instinctive drift).
  • 3.8.A.4 Superstitious behavior occurs when consequences reinforce unrelated behaviors. Learned helplessness occurs when organisms learn that they have no control over their experience of aversive consequences in a given situation.
  • 3.8.A.5 The schedule with which reinforcement is delivered can determine the strength of the association between the consequence and the response. The two main types of reinforcement schedules are continuous and partial. Each type of reinforcement behavior can be graphed, resulting in a distinctive pattern on the graph (e.g., fixed-interval schedule produces a scalloped graph).
    • 3.8.A.5.i Continuous reinforcement schedules deliver reinforcement for each and every correct behavior.
    • 3.8.A.5.ii The partial reinforcement schedules focus on whether reinforcement is delivered on a time-based schedule (fixed- or variable-interval) or for the number of behaviors performed (fixed- or variable-ratio).

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

操作性条件作用(operant conditioning)把行为与其后果联系起来。

  • 强化(reinforcement)增加行为,惩罚(punishment)减少行为。
  • 正(positive)表示增加某物,负(negative)表示移除某物。因此负强化(negative reinforcement)通过移除不愉快的东西来增加行为——它不是惩罚。
  • 原级强化物(primary reinforcer)满足生物需要,次级强化物(secondary reinforcer,如金钱)则是习得的。
  • 塑造(shaping)通过奖励逐步接近(successive approximations)目标的行为来达成目标。

强化程式(reinforcement schedules)决定学习的牢固程度与持久性。连续强化(continuous reinforcement)对每次反应都给予强化,学得快但消退也快。部分强化(partial reinforcement)有四种——固定比率(fixed-ratio)、变动比率(variable-ratio)、固定时距(fixed-interval)和变动时距(variable-interval)——其中变动比率产生最高且最抗消退的反应率。

迷信行为(superstitious behavior)源于后果强化了无关的动作。习得性无助(learned helplessness)则是个体反复无法逃离厌恶事件后不再尝试。

词汇表 训练
英文 中文 拼音
Operant conditioning 操作性条件作用 cāo zuò xìng tiáo jiàn zuò yòng
Reinforcement 强化 qiáng huà
punishment 惩罚 chéng fá
Positive 正 zhèng
negative 负 fù
negative reinforcement 负强化 fù qiáng huà
primary reinforcer 原级强化物 yuán jí qiáng huà wù
secondary reinforcer 次级强化物 cì jí qiáng huà wù
Shaping 塑造 sù zào
successive approximations 逐步接近 zhú bù jiē jìn
Reinforcement schedules 强化程式 qiáng huà chéng shì
Continuous reinforcement 连续强化 lián xù qiáng huà
Partial reinforcement 部分强化 bù fèn qiáng huà
fixed-ratio 固定比率 gù dìng bǐ lǜ
variable-ratio 变动比率 biàn dòng bǐ lǜ
fixed-interval 固定时距 gù dìng shí jù
variable-interval 变动时距 biàn dòng shí jù
Superstitious behavior 迷信行为 mí xìn xíng wéi
Learned helplessness 习得性无助 xí dé xìng wú zhù
3.9

学习中的社会、认知与神经因素
大纲
Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

3.9.A
Explain how social learning applies to behavior and mental processes.

  • 3.9.A.1 Social learning theory proposes that learning can occur by observation and does not have to involve personal experience with a consequence (vicarious conditioning). Learning can occur by copying the behavior of models. The more similar a model is, the more likely the behavior is to be learned.

3.9.B
Explain how cognitive factors in learning apply to behavior and mental processes.

  • 3.9.B.1 Insight learning occurs when the solution to a problem occurs without any association, consequence, or model being present.
  • 3.9.B.2 Latent learning occurs when information is learned without reinforcement but is not immediately evident. Latent learning is often demonstrated by cognitive maps.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

并非所有学习都需要亲身经历。社会学习理论(social learning theory)表明,行为可以通过观察(observation)与榜样示范(modeling)习得——这正是波波玩偶实验中攻击行为被模仿的基础。

顿悟学习(insight learning)是没有渐进条件化过程的突然领悟。潜伏学习(latent learning)是在没有强化的情况下发生、直到有理由表现时才显露的学习,老鼠在迷宫中形成认知地图(cognitive map)即是明证。

Worked example(一道真实的 AP 考题)。2024 年的试题描述了学龄前儿童 Gavin 在科学博物馆的经历:他抓起一颗大玻璃弹珠,想把它拍到地上弹起来;中途他与父母短暂走散;第二天他向祖母讲述自己画的一幅画。题目要求学生「解释皮亚杰的同化概念如何与 Gavin 玩玻璃弹珠的经历相关」,以及「解释自我中心如何与 Gavin 在车里同祖母互动的方式相关」*。满分答案会给出定义并*扣住具体细节:*「Gavin 已有关于球的图式,而球会弹起。他把弹珠同化进这一图式,于是把它当成球,试图让它弹起来。」*注意其结构:只给定义不得分,只复述情节同样不得分,得分点在于把两者连接起来。

词汇表 训练
英文 中文 拼音
Social learning theory 社会学习理论 shè huì xué xí lǐ lùn
observation 观察 guān chá
modeling 榜样示范 bǎng yàng shì fàn
Insight learning 顿悟学习 dùn wù xué xí
Latent learning 潜伏学习 qián fú xué xí
cognitive map 认知地图 rèn zhī dì tú
3.9

考试技巧
  • 负强化是增加行为。如果你能说出移除了什么,而行为上升了,那它就不是惩罚。
  • 把皮亚杰的阶段与其标志能力对应——客体永久性、守恒、抽象推理——而不是与年龄对应。
  • 经典条件作用连接两个刺激并产生不随意反应;操作性条件作用把行为与后果连接起来。
  • 变动比率程式最抗消退。题目描述类似赌博的持续行为时就用它。
  • 关键期用于狭窄的窗口,敏感期用于较宽松的情形。
  • 回答情境题时,先写出术语,再指出情境中证明它的细节。得分点正是那个细节。

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