- define electronegativity as the power of an atom to attract electrons to itself
- explain the factors influencing the electronegativities of the elements in terms of nuclear charge, atomic radius and shielding by inner shells and sub-shells
- state and explain the trends in electronegativity across a period and down a group of the Periodic Table
- use the differences in Pauling electronegativity values to predict the formation of ionic and covalent bonds (the presence of covalent character in some ionic compounds will not be assessed) (Pauling electronegativity values will be given where necessary)
化学键
A-Level 化学 · 第 3 主题
3.1
电负性与成键
大纲
来源:剑桥国际大纲
电负性(electronegativity)是一个原子把键中的电子(electrons)吸引向自己的能力。
三个因素决定一个原子的电负性有多强:
- 核电荷(nuclear charge):更多的质子更强地吸引成键电子。
- 原子半径(atomic radius):键离原子核越近,吸引越强。
- 内壳层和亚层的屏蔽(shielding):更多的内层电子削弱对成键电子的吸引。
所以电负性沿一个周期上升(核电荷更多、半径更小),沿一个族下降(半径更大、屏蔽更多)。氟是电负性最强的元素。

你可以用鲍林电负性(Pauling electronegativity)值的差来预测键的类型。差大给出离子键;差小给出共价键。
| 英文 | 中文 | 拼音 |
|---|---|---|
| electronegativity | 电负性 | diàn fù xìng |
| electron | 电子 | diàn zi |
| nuclear charge | 核电荷 | hé diàn hè |
| atomic radius | 原子半径 | yuán zi bàn jìng |
| shielding | 屏蔽 | píng bì |
| Pauling electronegativity | 鲍林电负性 | bào lín diàn fù xìng |
3.2
离子键
大纲
- define ionic bonding as the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions (positively charged cations and negatively charged anions)
- describe ionic bonding including the examples of sodium chloride, magnesium oxide and calcium fluoride
来源:剑桥国际大纲
离子键(ionic bonding)是异号离子(ions)——带正电的阳离子(cations)和带负电的阴离子(anions)——之间的静电引力(electrostatic attraction)。
当一个金属把电子给一个非金属时,它就形成。好的例子有氯化钠($\text{NaCl}$)、氧化镁($\text{MgO}$)和氟化钙($\text{CaF}_2$)。离子堆积成一个规则的巨型晶格(lattice),由各个方向的吸引力保持在一起。


Forming an ionic bond (NaCl)
Step through it. A metal hands its outer electron to a non-metal; the oppositely charged ions then attract in a giant lattice.
| 英文 | 中文 | 拼音 |
|---|---|---|
| ionic bonding | 离子键 | lí zi jiàn |
| electrostatic attraction | 静电引力 | jìng diàn yǐn lì |
| ion | 离子 | lí zi |
| cation | 阳离子 | yáng lí zi |
| anion | 阴离子 | yīn lí zi |
| lattice | 晶格 | jīng gé |
3.3
金属键
大纲
- define metallic bonding as the electrostatic attraction between positive metal ions and delocalised electrons
来源:剑桥国际大纲
金属键(metallic bonding)是带正电的金属离子与一"海"离域电子(delocalised electrons)之间的静电引力。
外层电子可以自由地在整块金属中移动。这解释了为什么金属导电且强韧。

Inside a metal — and why it behaves that way
Step through it. Positive ions sit in a shared sea of delocalised electrons. That one picture explains conduction, malleability, and strength.
| 英文 | 中文 | 拼音 |
|---|---|---|
| metallic bonding | 金属键 | jīn shǔ jiàn |
| delocalised electrons | 离域电子 | lí yù diàn zi |
3.4
共价键与配位(共价)键
大纲
- define covalent bonding as electrostatic attraction between the nuclei of two atoms and a shared pair of electrons (a) describe covalent bonding in molecules including: • hydrogen, $\text{H}_2$ • oxygen, $\text{O}_2$ • nitrogen, $\text{N}_2$ • chlorine, $\text{Cl}_2$ • hydrogen chloride, $\text{HCl}$ • carbon dioxide, $\text{CO}_2$ • ammonia, $\text{NH}_3$ • methane, $\text{CH}_4$ • ethane, $\text{C}_2\text{H}_6$ • ethene, $\text{C}_2\text{H}_4$ (b) understand that elements in period 3 can expand their octet including in the compounds sulfur dioxide, $\text{SO}_2$, phosphorus pentachloride, $\text{PCl}_5$, and sulfur hexafluoride, $\text{SF}_6$ (c) describe coordinate (dative covalent) bonding, including in the reaction between ammonia and hydrogen chloride gases to form the ammonium ion, $\text{NH}_4^+$, and in the $\text{Al}_2\text{Cl}_6$ molecule
- (a) describe covalent bonds in terms of orbital overlap giving $\sigma$ and $\pi$ bonds: • $\sigma$ bonds are formed by direct overlap of orbitals between the bonding atoms • $\pi$ bonds are formed by the sideways overlap of adjacent p orbitals above and below the $\sigma$ bond (b) describe how the $\sigma$ and $\pi$ bonds form in molecules including $\text{H}_2$, $\text{C}_2\text{H}_6$, $\text{C}_2\text{H}_4$, $\text{HCN}$ and $\text{N}_2$ (c) use the concept of hybridisation to describe $\text{sp}$, $\text{sp}^2$ and $\text{sp}^3$ orbitals
- (a) define the terms: • bond energy as the energy required to break one mole of a particular covalent bond in the gaseous state • bond length as the internuclear distance of two covalently bonded atoms (b) use bond energy values and the concept of bond length to compare the reactivity of covalent molecules
来源:剑桥国际大纲
共价键(covalent bonding)是两个原子的原子核与一对共享电子之间的静电引力。
带共价键的简单分子包括 $\text{H}_2$、$\text{O}_2$、$\text{N}_2$、$\text{Cl}_2$、$\text{HCl}$、$\text{CO}_2$、$\text{NH}_3$、$\text{CH}_4$、$\text{C}_2\text{H}_6$ 和 $\text{C}_2\text{H}_4$。双键共享两对;三键(如 $\text{N}_2$ 中)共享三对。
第 3 周期及以下的原子能扩展八隅体(expand the octet)——在它们的外壳层容纳多于八个电子。例子有 $\text{SO}_2$、$\text{PCl}_5$ 和 $\text{SF}_6$。
配位键(coordinate bond,也叫配位共价键)是一种两个共享电子都来自同一原子的共价键。例如,当氨气和氯化氢气体相遇时,氮上的孤对电子与 $\text{H}^+$ 形成一个配位键,生成铵离子 $\text{NH}_4^+$。配位键也连接 $\text{Al}_2\text{Cl}_6$ 分子的两半。

σ 键和 π 键
当轨道(orbitals)重叠时形成共价键:
- σ 键(sigma bond)由两个原子之间轨道的直接、正面重叠(overlap)形成。
- π 键(pi bond)由两个 p 轨道在 σ 键上下的侧向重叠形成。
一个单键是一个 σ 键。一个双键(如 $\text{C}_2\text{H}_4$ 中)是一个 σ 键加一个 π 键。一个三键(如 $\text{N}_2$ 和 $\text{HCN}$ 中)是一个 σ 键加两个 π 键。

杂化
杂化(hybridisation)把同一壳层的轨道混合,产生新的、相等的成键轨道:
- $\text{sp}$:两个相等的轨道,用于直线形分子。
- $\text{sp}^2$:三个相等的轨道,用于像 $\text{C}_2\text{H}_4$ 这样的平面分子。
- $\text{sp}^3$:四个相等的轨道,用于 $\text{CH}_4$。
键能和键长
- 键能(bond energy)是在气态下断裂一摩尔某个特定共价键所需的能量。
- 键长(bond length)是两个成键原子中心之间的距离。
较短的键通常更强(键能更高)。三键比双键更短、更强,双键又比单键更短、更强。更强的键使分子更难反应。
Sharing a pair of electrons
Step through a covalent bond: two atoms overlap and share a pair so each reaches a full shell — when the two pull equally the bond is non-polar.
Covalent bonding (sharing)
Two non-metal atoms overlap and share a pair of electrons — counted for both — so each reaches a full outer shell. O₂ shares two pairs (a double bond).
| 英文 | 中文 | 拼音 |
|---|---|---|
| covalent bonding | 共价键 | gòng jià jiàn |
| expand the octet | 扩展八隅体 | kuò zhǎn bā yú tǐ |
| coordinate bond | 配位键 | pèi wèi jiàn |
| orbital | 轨道 | guǐ dào |
| sigma bond | σ键 | σ jiàn |
| overlap | 重叠 | chóng dié |
| pi bond | π键 | π jiàn |
| hybridisation | 杂化 | zá huà |
| bond energy | 键能 | jiàn néng |
| bond length | 键长 | jiàn zhǎng |
3.5
分子的形状
大纲
- state and explain the shapes of, and bond angles in, molecules by using VSEPR theory, including as simple examples: • $\text{BF}_3$ (trigonal planar, 120°) • $\text{CO}_2$ (linear, 180°) • $\text{CH}_4$ (tetrahedral, 109.5°) • $\text{NH}_3$ (pyramidal, 107°) • $\text{H}_2\text{O}$ (non-linear, 104.5°) • $\text{SF}_6$ (octahedral, 90°) • $\text{PF}_5$ (trigonal bipyramidal, 120° and 90°)
- predict the shapes of, and bond angles in, molecules and ions analogous to those specified in 3.5.1
来源:剑桥国际大纲

要推出一个形状,用价层电子对互斥理论(VSEPR theory):中心原子周围的电子对尽可能地互相推开,因为同号电荷相斥。
一个孤对电子(lone pair,不在键中)比一个成键电子对(bonding pair)推得更强。每个孤对电子把键角(bond angle)挤小约 $2.5°$。
| 分子 | 形状 | 键角 |
|---|---|---|
| $\text{CO}_2$ | 直线形(linear) | $180°$ |
| $\text{BF}_3$ | 平面三角形(trigonal planar) | $120°$ |
| $\text{CH}_4$ | 四面体形(tetrahedral) | $109.5°$ |
| $\text{NH}_3$ | 三角锥形(pyramidal) | $107°$ |
| $\text{H}_2\text{O}$ | 角形(bent) | $104.5°$ |
| $\text{PF}_5$ | 三角双锥形(trigonal bipyramidal) | $120°$ 和 $90°$ |
| $\text{SF}_6$ | 八面体形(octahedral) | $90°$ |
$\text{NH}_3$ 有一个孤对电子,$\text{H}_2\text{O}$ 有两个,这就是为什么它们的角低于 $\text{CH}_4$ 的 $109.5°$。你可以用同样的方法预测类似分子和离子的形状。

例题。 预测 $\text{NH}_3$ 和 $\text{H}_2\text{O}$ 的形状与键角。氮有 5 个外层电子,形成 3 个键,剩下 3 对成键电子对和 1 对孤对电子 - 一共四对,所以从四面体的 $109.5°$ 出发。孤对电子排斥力更强,把键角压缩约 $2.5°$,给出约 $107°$ 的三角锥形。氧形成 2 个键,保留 2 对孤对电子:仍是四对,但现在压缩两次,所以形状是约 $104.5°$ 的角形(V 形)。要数全部电子对来确定基本几何构型,每一对孤对电子减去 $2.5°$,并且要根据原子来命名形状 - $\text{NH}_3$ 有四对电子对,但它是三角锥形,不是四面体形。
Shape from bonding and lone pairs
Count the bonding pairs and lone pairs around the central atom; they repel into the shape with least strain. Three bonds and one lone pair give a pyramid, like ammonia (NH3).
Predicting molecular shape
Set the bonding and lone pairs. Electron pairs repel and spread out as far apart as possible — that fixes the shape and bond angle.
| 英文 | 中文 | 拼音 |
|---|---|---|
| VSEPR theory | 价层电子对互斥理论 | jià céng diàn zi duì hù chì lǐ lùn |
| lone pair | 孤对电子 | gū duì diàn zi |
| bonding pair | 成键电子对 | chéng jiàn diàn zi duì |
| bond angle | 键角 | jiàn jiǎo |
| linear | 直线形 | zhí xiàn xíng |
| trigonal planar | 平面三角形 | píng miàn sān jiǎo xíng |
| tetrahedral | 四面体形 | sì miàn tǐ xíng |
| pyramidal | 三角锥形 | sān jiǎo zhuī xíng |
| bent | 角形 | jiǎo xíng |
| trigonal bipyramidal | 三角双锥形 | sān jiǎo shuāng zhuī xíng |
| octahedral | 八面体形 | bā miàn tǐ xíng |
3.6
分子间作用力、电负性与键的性质
大纲
- (a) describe hydrogen bonding, limited to molecules containing N–H and O–H groups, including ammonia and water as simple examples (b) use the concept of hydrogen bonding to explain the anomalous properties of $\text{H}_2\text{O}$ (ice and water): • its relatively high melting and boiling points • its relatively high surface tension • the density of the solid ice compared with the liquid water
- use the concept of electronegativity to explain bond polarity and dipole moments of molecules
- (a) describe van der Waals’ forces as the intermolecular forces between molecular entities other than those due to bond formation, and use the term van der Waals’ forces as a generic term to describe all intermolecular forces (b) describe the types of van der Waals’ forces: • instantaneous dipole–induced dipole (id-id) forces, also called London dispersion forces • permanent dipole–permanent dipole (pd-pd) forces, including hydrogen bonding (c) describe hydrogen bonding and understand that hydrogen bonding is a special case of permanent dipole–permanent dipole forces between molecules where hydrogen is bonded to a highly electronegative atom
- state that, in general, ionic, covalent and metallic bonding are stronger than intermolecular forces
来源:剑桥国际大纲
分子间作用力(intermolecular forces)是分子(molecules)之间的力。它们比物质内部的离子键、共价键和金属键弱得多。
键的极性和偶极
当两个电负性不同的原子共享一个键时,电子更靠近电负性更强的原子。键于是有一个极性(polarity):一端略负($\delta-$),另一端略正($\delta+$)。这种电荷的分离是一个偶极(dipole)。
如果一个分子中的偶极不相互抵消,整个分子有一个偶极矩(dipole moment)并且是极性的。如果它们由于对称而相互抵消(如 $\text{CO}_2$ 中),分子是非极性的。
范德华力
范德华力(Van der Waals' forces)是所有分子间作用力的统称。有两种主要类型。
第一种是瞬时偶极-诱导偶极力,也叫伦敦色散力(London dispersion force)。运动的电子产生一个短暂的瞬时偶极(instantaneous dipole),它随即在附近的分子中产生一个匹配的诱导偶极(induced dipole)。这些力作用在所有分子之间,当电子更多时变得更强。

第二种是永久偶极-永久偶极力。它作用在始终是极性的分子之间,因为每一个都有一个永久偶极(permanent dipole)。
氢键
氢键(hydrogen bonding)是永久偶极力的一个强的、特殊的情形。当氢与一个电负性很强的原子——氮、氧或氟——成键,并被邻居中一个 N、O 或 F 原子上的孤对电子吸引时,它就形成。留意 N–H 和 O–H 基团,如氨和水中的。

氢键解释了水的奇怪行为:
- 它高的熔点和沸点(boiling point),因为必须断裂许多氢键。
- 它高的表面张力(surface tension)。
- 冰比液态水密度更小,因为氢键把分子保持在一个开放、伸展的结构中,所以冰浮在水面。
Polarity and intermolecular forces lab
Classify molecules by the feature that controls attractions.
Why hydrogen bonds make water special
Step through it. One weak-but-strong force — the hydrogen bond — explains water's high boiling point, why ice floats, and why it dissolves so much.
| 英文 | 中文 | 拼音 |
|---|---|---|
| intermolecular forces | 分子间作用力 | fèn zǐ jiàn zuò yòng lì |
| molecule | 分子 | fèn zǐ |
| polarity | 极性 | jí xìng |
| dipole | 偶极 | ǒu jí |
| dipole moment | 偶极矩 | ǒu jí jǔ |
| van der Waals' forces | 范德华力 | fàn dé huá lì |
| London dispersion forces | 伦敦色散力 | lún dūn sè sàn lì |
| instantaneous dipole | 瞬时偶极 | shùn shí ǒu jí |
| induced dipole | 诱导偶极 | yòu dǎo ǒu jí |
| permanent dipole | 永久偶极 | yǒng jiǔ ǒu jí |
| hydrogen bonding | 氢键 | qīng jiàn |
| boiling point | 沸点 | fèi diǎn |
| surface tension | 表面张力 | biǎo miàn zhāng lì |
3.7
电子点叉图
大纲
- use dot-and-cross diagrams to illustrate ionic, covalent and coordinate bonding including the representation of any compounds stated in 3.4 and 3.5 (dot-and-cross diagrams may include species with atoms which have an expanded octet or species with an odd number of electrons)
来源:剑桥国际大纲
点叉图(dot-and-cross diagram)显示每个原子的外层电子,一个原子用点、另一个用叉。这清楚地表明每个成键电子来自哪里。你可以为离子键、共价键和配位键画出它们,包括带扩展八隅体或奇数个电子的分子。

| 英文 | 中文 | 拼音 |
|---|---|---|
| dot-and-cross diagram | 点叉图 | diǎn chā tú |
3.7
考试技巧
- 对于形状,数成键电子对和孤对电子,命名形状,然后给出确切的键角(例如 $\text{NH}_3$:三角锥形,$107^\circ$)——每个孤对电子把角降低约 $2.5^\circ$。
- 一个配位(配位)键的两个电子都来自一个原子(例如 $\text{NH}_4^+$、$\text{H}_3\text{O}^+$);从孤对电子画出箭头。
- 精确地命名分子间作用力:氢键需要 H 与 N、O 或 F 成键;否则它是永久偶极或诱导偶极(范德华)。决不要把范德华力叫作"键"。
- 通过说明哪些力被断裂来解释一个物理性质,而不只是说"强键"。
本主题的互动课程
逐步学习,并即时检测练习。