Chemical Reactions · ⁨תגובות כימיות⁩

Learning Objective 4.1.A: Identify evidence of chemical and physical changes in matter.

• 4.1.A.1 A physical change occurs when a substance undergoes a change in properties but not a change in composition. Changes in the phase of a substance (solid, liquid, gas) or formation/separation of mixtures of substances are common physical changes.
• 4.1.A.2 A chemical change occurs when substances are transformed into new substances, typically with different compositions. Production of heat or light, formation of a gas, formation of a precipitate, and/or color change provide possible evidence that a chemical change has occurred.

Learning Objective 4.2.A: Represent changes in matter with a balanced chemical or net ionic equation: i. For physical changes. ii. For given information about the identity of the reactants and/or product. iii. For ions in a given chemical reaction.

• 4.2.A.1 All physical and chemical processes can be represented symbolically by balanced equations.
• 4.2.A.2 Chemical equations represent chemical changes. These changes are the result of a rearrangement of atoms into new combinations; thus, any representation of a chemical change must contain equal numbers of atoms of every element before and after the change occurred. Equations thus demonstrate that mass and charge are conserved in chemical reactions.
• 4.2.A.3 Balanced molecular, complete ionic, and net ionic equations are differing symbolic forms used to represent a chemical reaction. The form used to represent the reaction depends on the context in which it is to be used.

Learning Objective 4.3.A: Represent a given chemical reaction or physical process with a consistent particulate model.

• 4.3.A.1 Balanced chemical equations in their various forms can be translated into symbolic particulate representations.

Learning Objective 4.4.A: Explain the relationship between macroscopic characteristics and bond interactions for: i. Chemical processes. ii. Physical processes.

• 4.4.A.1 Processes that involve the breaking and/or formation of chemical bonds are typically classified as chemical processes. Processes that involve only changes in intermolecular interactions, such as phase changes, are typically classified as physical processes.
• 4.4.A.2 Sometimes physical processes involve the breaking of chemical bonds. For example, plausible arguments could be made for the dissolution of a salt in water, as either a physical or chemical process, involves breaking of ionic bonds, and the formation of ion-dipole interactions between ions and solvent.

Learning Objective 4.5.A: Explain changes in the amounts of reactants and products based on the balanced reaction equation for a chemical process.

• 4.5.A.1 Because atoms must be conserved during a chemical process, it is possible to calculate product amounts by using known reactant amounts, or to calculate reactant amounts given known product amounts.
• 4.5.A.2 Coefficients of balanced chemical equations contain information regarding the proportionality of the amounts of substances involved in the reaction. These values can be used in chemical calculations involving the mole concept.
• 4.5.A.3 Stoichiometric calculations can be combined with the ideal gas law and calculations involving molarity to quantitatively study gases and solutions.

Learning Objective 4.6.A: Identify the equivalence point in a titration based on the amounts of the titrant and analyte, assuming the titration reaction goes to completion.

• 4.6.A.1 Titrations may be used to determine the amount of an analyte in solution. The titrant has a known concentration of a species that reacts specifically and quantitatively with the analyte. The equivalence point of the titration occurs when the analyte is totally consumed by the reacting species in the titrant. The equivalence point is often indicated by a change in a property (such as color) that occurs when the equivalence point is reached. This observable event is called the endpoint of the titration.

Learning Objective 4.7.A: Identify a reaction as acid-base, oxidation-reduction, or precipitation.

• 4.7.A.1 Acid-base reactions involve transfer of one or more protons ($\text{H}^+$ ions) between chemical species.
• 4.7.A.2 Oxidation-reduction (redox) reactions involve transfer of one or more electrons between chemical species, as indicated by changes in oxidation numbers of the involved species. Combustion is an important subclass of oxidation-reduction reactions, in which a species reacts with oxygen gas. In the case of hydrocarbons, carbon dioxide and water are products of complete combustion.
• 4.7.A.3 In a redox reaction, electrons are transferred from the species that is oxidized to the species that is reduced.
  • Exclusion statement: The meaning of the terms "reducing agent" and "oxidizing agent" will not be assessed on the AP Exam.
• 4.7.A.4 Oxidation numbers may be assigned to each of the atoms in the reactants and products; this is often an effective way to identify the oxidized and reduced species in a redox reaction.
• 4.7.A.5 Precipitation reactions frequently involve mixing ions in aqueous solution to produce an insoluble or sparingly soluble ionic compound. All sodium, potassium, ammonium, and nitrate salts are soluble in water.
  • Exclusion statement: Rote memorization of "solubility rules" other than those implied in 4.7.A.5 will not be assessed on the AP Exam.

Learning Objective 4.8.A: Identify species as Brønsted-Lowry acids, bases, and/or conjugate acid-base pairs, based on proton-transfer involving those species.

• 4.8.A.1 By definition, a Brønsted-Lowry acid is a proton donor and a Brønsted-Lowry base is a proton acceptor.
• 4.8.A.2 Only in aqueous solutions, water plays an important role in many acid-base reactions, as its molecular structure allows it to accept protons from and donate protons to dissolved species.
• 4.8.A.3 When an acid or base ionizes in water, the conjugate acid-base pairs can be identified and their relative strengths compared.
  • Exclusion statement: Lewis acid-base concepts will not be assessed on the AP Exam. The emphasis in AP Chemistry is on reactions in aqueous solution.

Learning Objective 4.9.A: Represent a balanced redox reaction equation using half-reactions.

• 4.9.A.1 Balanced chemical equations for redox reactions can be constructed from half-reactions.