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AP 化学

AP 化学涵盖原子结构与性质、化合物结构与性质、物质与混合物的性质、化学反应、动力学、热化学、 平衡、酸碱,以及热力学与电化学。它是一门大学一年级课程,平衡与热力学部分的深度尤其体现了 这一点。

这门考试异常明确地把分数给"解释"。自由作答题要求你用证据与推理为结论辩护,往往需要深入到 微粒层面;只给出正确预测而没有机理说明,得分很低。养成写出"因为该离子半径更小,电荷密度 更高,所以……"的习惯,比多背内容更有价值。

平衡与酸碱合起来占课程很大比重,并与几乎所有其他内容相连,因此值得投入不成比例的时间。 本站笔记按 College Board 的单元编排,每单元一页,微粒层面的示意图完整绘出,每处论证都 完整写出。

AP 化学历年真题

训练全部词汇
  • 1

    原子结构与性质

    讲义 词汇表
    1.1

    摩尔与摩尔质量

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    1.1.A
    Calculate quantities of a substance or its relative number of particles using dimensional analysis and the mole concept.

    • 1.1.A.1 One cannot count particles directly while performing laboratory work. Thus, there must be a connection between the masses of substances reacting and the actual number of particles undergoing chemical changes.
    • 1.1.A.2 Avogadro's number ($N_{\mathrm{A}} = 6.022 \times 10^{23}\ \mathrm{mol}^{-1}$) provides the connection between the number of moles in a pure sample of a substance and the number of constituent particles (or formula units) of that substance.
    • 1.1.A.3 Expressing the mass of an individual atom or molecule in atomic mass units (amu) is useful because the average mass in amu of one particle (atom or molecule) or formula unit of a substance will always be numerically equal to the molar mass of that substance in grams. Thus, there is a quantitative connection between the mass of a substance and the number of particles that the substance contains.
      • Equation: $n = m/M$

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    因为原子太小无法计数,化学家以摩尔(moles)计数。一摩尔是阿伏伽德罗常数(Avogadro's number)个粒子,$N_A=6.022\times10^{23}$摩尔质量(molar mass)(每摩尔的克数,从周期表读出)在质量和摩尔之间转换:

    $$n=\frac{m}{M}.$$
    摩尔是实验室(你称的克)和方程(反应的粒子)之间的桥梁。

    摩尔是枢纽:在质量、粒子、气体体积和浓度之间转换
    摩尔是枢纽:在质量、粒子、气体体积和浓度之间转换

    Worked example. $36.0\ \text{g}$ 的水($M=18.0\ \text{g/mol}$)里有多少摩尔,以及多少分子?

    $$n=\frac{m}{M}=\frac{36.0}{18.0}=2.0\ \text{mol},\qquad N=n\,N_A=2.0\times6.022\times10^{23}=1.2\times10^{24}\ \text{molecules}.$$

    探索

    Link mass, moles and molar mass

    Molar mass $M$ is the bridge between the mass you weigh and the number of moles: $m = M \times n$. Because $M$ is fixed for a substance, mass is proportional to moles — double the moles, double the mass.

    词汇表 训练
    英文 中文 拼音
    moles 摩尔 mó ěr
    Avogadro's number 阿伏伽德罗常数 ā fú gā dé luó cháng shù
    molar mass 摩尔质量 mó ěr zhì liàng
    1.2

    元素的质谱

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    1.2.A
    Explain the quantitative relationship between the mass spectrum of an element and the masses of the element's isotopes.

    • 1.2.A.1 The mass spectrum of a sample containing a single element can be used to determine the identity of the isotopes of that element and the relative abundance of each isotope in nature.
    • 1.2.A.2 The average atomic mass of an element can be estimated from the weighted average of the isotopic masses using the mass of each isotope and its relative abundance.
      • Exclusion Statement: Interpreting mass spectra of samples containing multiple elements or peaks arising from species other than singly charged monatomic ions will not be assessed on the AP Exam.

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    质谱法

    一台质谱仪(mass spectrometer)按质量分开原子,给出一个质谱(mass spectrum):在每个同位素(isotope)(相同元素,不同中子数)处有峰,峰高显示它们的相对丰度(relative abundance)。元素的平均原子质量是它同位素质量的丰度加权平均。

    相对原子质量是同位素的丰度加权平均
    相对原子质量是同位素的丰度加权平均
    氯的质谱:两个丰度不同的同位素
    氯的质谱:两个丰度不同的同位素

    Worked example. 氯是 $75.8\%$ 氯-35 和 $24.2\%$ 氯-37。它的平均原子质量是

    $$A_r=(35)(0.758)+(37)(0.242)=26.5+8.95=35.5.$$
    平均值更接近 $35$,因为那个同位素更丰富——这就是为什么周期表值是 $35.5$,不是一个整数。

    探索

    Explore isotopes — same element, different mass

    Keep the protons fixed but change the neutrons to build the two chlorine isotopes ($^{35}$Cl and $^{37}$Cl). Same element, different mass — exactly the peaks a mass spectrum shows.

    词汇表 训练
    英文 中文 拼音
    mass spectrometer 质谱仪 zhì pǔ yí
    mass spectrum 质谱 zhì pǔ
    isotope 同位素 tóng wèi sù
    relative abundance 相对丰度 xiāng duì fēng dù
    练习卷
    1.3

    纯净物的元素组成

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    1.3.A
    Explain the quantitative relationship between the elemental composition by mass and the empirical formula of a pure substance.

    • 1.3.A.1 Some pure substances are composed of individual molecules, while others consist of atoms or ions held together in fixed proportions as described by a formula unit.
    • 1.3.A.2 According to the law of definite proportions, the ratio of the masses of the constituent elements in any pure sample of that compound is always the same.
    • 1.3.A.3 The chemical formula that lists the lowest whole number ratio of atoms of the elements in a compound is the empirical formula.

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    一个化合物的百分组成(percent composition)是每个元素的质量分数。从它你通过把每个元素的质量转换成摩尔并除以最小的来求实验式(empirical formula)(原子的最简整数比)。分子式(molecular formula)是实验式的一个整数倍,从摩尔质量求出。

    求实验式:质量到摩尔、除以最小的、读比
    求实验式:质量到摩尔、除以最小的、读比

    Worked example. 一个化合物按质量是 $40.0\%$ C、$6.7\%$ H 和 $53.3\%$ O。假设 $100\ \text{g}$,把每个质量转换成摩尔并除以最小的:

    $$\text{C}:\frac{40.0}{12}=3.33,\quad \text{H}:\frac{6.7}{1}=6.7,\quad \text{O}:\frac{53.3}{16}=3.33 \;\xrightarrow{\div 3.33}\; 1:2:1,$$
    所以实验式是 $\text{CH}_2\text{O}$。若摩尔质量是 $180\ \text{g/mol}$($=6\times30$),分子式会是 $\text{C}_6\text{H}_{12}\text{O}_6$ ——葡萄糖。

    词汇表 训练
    英文 中文 拼音
    percent composition 百分组成 bǎi fēn zǔ chéng
    empirical formula 实验式 shí yàn shì
    molecular formula 分子式 fēn zǐ shì
    1.4

    混合物的组成

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    1.4.A
    Explain the quantitative relationship between the elemental composition by mass and the composition of substances in a mixture.

    • 1.4.A.1 Pure substances contain atoms, molecules, or formula units of a single type. Mixtures contain atoms, molecules, or formula units of two or more types, whose relative proportions can vary.
    • 1.4.A.2 Elemental analysis can be used to determine the relative numbers of atoms in a substance and to determine its purity.

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    与一个纯化合物不同,一个混合物(mixture)有可变的组成——它的各部分保持它们自己的身份。用每个组分的质量或摩尔分数来描述一个混合物;这些不遵循一个固定的公式。光谱学(像 PES 或吸收)能测量每个组分存在多少。

    词汇表 训练
    英文 中文 拼音
    mixture 混合物 hùn hé wù
    1.5

    原子结构与电子排布

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    1.5.A
    Represent the ground-state electron configuration of an atom of an element or its ions using the Aufbau principle.

    • 1.5.A.1 The atom is composed of negatively charged electrons and a positively charged nucleus that is made of protons and neutrons.
    • 1.5.A.2 Coulomb's law is used to calculate the force between two charged particles.
      • Equation: $F_{coulombic} \propto \dfrac{q_1 q_2}{r^2}$
    • 1.5.A.3 In atoms and ions, the electrons can be thought of as being in "shells (energy levels)" and "subshells (sublevels)," as described by the ground-state electron configuration. Inner electrons are called core electrons, and outer electrons are called valence electrons. The electron configuration is explained by quantum mechanics, as delineated in the Aufbau principle and exemplified in the periodic table of the elements.
      • Exclusion Statement: The assignment of quantum numbers to electrons in subshells of an atom will not be assessed on the AP Exam.
    • 1.5.A.4 The relative energy required to remove an electron from different subshells of an atom or ion or from the same subshell in different atoms or ions (ionization energy) can be estimated through a qualitative application of Coulomb's law. This energy is related to the distance from the nucleus and the effective (shield) charge of the nucleus.

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    一个原子是一个微小的原子核(nucleus)(质子和中子),被在壳层(shells)和亚层(subshells)(s、p、d、f)里的电子围绕。电子排布(electron configuration)列出电子如何填充这些,最低能量优先(例如 $1s^2\,2s^2\,2p^6$)。最外层、最高能量的电子——价电子(valence electrons)——控制化学。库仑定律(Coulomb's law)解释它们的能量:更接近原子核、被更少屏蔽的电子被更紧地束缚。

    一个原子:一个微小的质子和中子的原子核,电子在壳层里
    一个原子:一个微小的质子和中子的原子核,电子在壳层里
    一排九个燃烧的皿,每一簇火焰都是不同的鲜艳颜色——深红、橙、黄、绿、蓝、紫
    焰色试验:每种金属离子给出自己的颜色,因为热激发它的电子,当电子落回时,它们发出特定波长的光

    Worked example. 写硫($Z=16$)的电子排布。按顺序填充亚层直到 $16$ 个电子被放置:$1s^2\,2s^2\,2p^6\,3s^2\,3p^4$$3s$$3p$ 电子(总共六个)是价电子,所以硫倾向于获得两个电子来完成它的八隅体。

    The periodic table organises elements by atomic structure — electron configuration explains the patterns
    The periodic table organises elements by atomic structure — electron configuration explains the patterns
    探索

    Explore how electrons fill the shells

    Change the atomic number $Z$ and watch the electrons fill the shells lowest-energy-first (the Aufbau principle 构造原理). The outermost electrons are the valence electrons that drive bonding.

    词汇表 训练
    英文 中文 拼音
    nucleus 原子核 yuán zǐ hé
    electron configuration 电子排布 diàn zi pái bù
    valence electrons 价电子 jià diàn zi
    1.6

    光电子能谱

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    1.6.A
    Explain the relationship between the photoelectron spectrum of an atom or ion and:
    i. The ground-state electron configuration of the species.
    ii. The interactions between the electrons and the nucleus.

    • 1.6.A.1 The energies of the electrons in a given shell can be measured experimentally with photoelectron spectroscopy (PES). The position of each peak in the PES spectrum is related to the energy required to remove an electron from the corresponding subshell, and the relative height of each peak is (ideally) proportional to the number of electrons in that subshell.

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    光电子能谱(photoelectron spectroscopy)(PES)测量从每个亚层移除电子所需的能量。每个峰是一个亚层:它的位置给出结合能(束缚得多紧)而它的高度给出其中电子的数量。PES 数据让你直接读一个元素的电子排布并确认壳层结构。

    连续电离能通过大的跳跃揭示壳层结构
    连续电离能通过大的跳跃揭示壳层结构
    氖的光电子能谱:每个亚层一个峰,高度由电子数设定
    氖的光电子能谱:每个亚层一个峰,高度由电子数设定
    词汇表 训练
    英文 中文 拼音
    Photoelectron spectroscopy 光电子能谱 guāng diàn zi néng pǔ
    1.7

    周期性变化趋势

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    1.7.A
    Explain the relationship between trends in atomic properties of elements and electronic structure and periodicity.

    • 1.7.A.1 The organization of the periodic table is based on patterns of recurring properties of the elements, which are explained by patterns of ground-state electron configurations and the presence of completely or partially filled shells (and subshells) of electrons in atoms.
      • Exclusion Statement: Writing the electron configuration of elements that are exceptions to the aufbau principle will not be assessed on the AP Exam.
    • 1.7.A.2 Trends in atomic properties within the periodic table (periodicity) can be predicted by the position of the element on the periodic table and qualitatively understood using Coulomb's law, the shell model, and the concepts of shielding and effective nuclear charge. These properties include:
      • i. Ionization energy
      • ii. Atomic and ionic radii
      • iii. Electron affinity
      • iv. Electronegativity.
    • 1.7.A.3 The periodicity (in 1.7.A.2) is useful to predict/estimate values of properties in the absence of data.

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    周期表上的趋势由核电荷(nuclear charge)和屏蔽(shielding)决定:

    电负性在一个周期上升而在一个族下降
    电负性在一个周期上升而在一个族下降
    • 原子半径(atomic radius)在一个周期上减小(更强的拉力)而在一个族上增大(更多壳层)。
    • 电离能(ionization energy)(移除一个电子的能量)横向增大、向下减小——与半径相反。
    • 电负性(electronegativity)(对共享电子的拉力)横向和向上增大,朝向氟。
    周期趋势:半径、电离能和电负性如何横向和向下变化
    周期趋势:半径、电离能和电负性如何横向和向下变化
    探索

    Explore atomic radius across a period

    Step across Period 3 and watch the atomic radius shrink — each added proton raises the effective nuclear charge and pulls the same shell in tighter.

    词汇表 训练
    英文 中文 拼音
    Atomic radius 原子半径 yuán zi bàn jìng
    Ionization energy 电离能 diàn lí néng
    Electronegativity 电负性 diàn fù xìng
    1.8

    价电子与离子化合物

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    1.8.A
    Explain the relationship between trends in the reactivity of elements and periodicity.

    • 1.8.A.1 The likelihood that two elements will form a chemical bond is determined by the interactions between the valence electrons and nuclei of elements.
    • 1.8.A.2 Elements in the same column of the periodic table tend to form analogous compounds.
    • 1.8.A.3 Typical charges of atoms in ionic compounds are governed by the number of valence electrons and predicted by their location on the periodic table.

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    原子获得、失去或共享价电子以达到稳定的排布。金属(低电离能)失去电子形成阳离子(cations);非金属获得电子形成阴离子(anions)。带相反电荷的离子吸引成一个离子化合物(ionic compound),它的公式平衡电荷使整体呈中性。例如,铝($3+$)和氧化物($2-$)结合成 $\text{Al}_2\text{O}_3$,所以 $+6$$-6$ 抵消。

    探索

    Watch an ionic bond form by electron transfer

    A metal gives up its valence electron(s) and a non-metal takes them, so both reach a full shell. The atoms become oppositely charged ions that attract — that electrostatic pull is the ionic bond.

    词汇表 训练
    英文 中文 拼音
    cations 阳离子 yáng lí zi
    anions 阴离子 yīn lí zi
    ionic compound 离子化合物 lí zi huà hé wù
    1.8

    考试技巧

    • 用摩尔作为枢纽:用 $n=m/M$ 转换克↔摩尔,用阿伏伽德罗常数转换摩尔↔粒子。
    • 相对原子质量是同位素的丰度加权平均——它更接近更丰富的那个,不是中间。
    • 对于一个实验式,把每个元素的质量变成摩尔并除以最小的;放大到整数。
    • 从核电荷和屏蔽读周期趋势:原子半径在一个周期上减小、电离能和电负性横向(和向上)增大。
    • 按能量顺序填充电子排布;外层价电子控制化学。
  • 2

    化合物的结构与性质

    讲义 词汇表
    2.1

    化学键的类型

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    2.1.A
    Explain the relationship between the type of bonding and the properties of the elements participating in the bond.

    • 2.1.A.1 Electronegativity values for the representative elements increase going from left to right across a period and decrease going down a group. These trends can be understood qualitatively through the electronic structure of the atoms, the shell model, and Coulomb's law.
    • 2.1.A.2 Valence electrons shared between atoms of similar electronegativity constitute a nonpolar covalent bond. For example, bonds between carbon and hydrogen are effectively nonpolar even though carbon is slightly more electronegative than hydrogen.
    • 2.1.A.3 Valence electrons shared between atoms of unequal electronegativity constitute a polar covalent bond.
      • i. The atom with a higher electronegativity will develop a partial negative charge relative to the other atom in the bond.
      • ii. In single bonds, greater differences in electronegativity lead to greater bond dipoles.
      • iii. All polar bonds have some ionic character, and the difference between ionic and covalent bonding is not distinct but rather a continuum.
    • 2.1.A.4 The difference in electronegativity is not the only factor in determining if a bond should be designated as ionic or covalent. Generally, bonds between a metal and nonmetal are ionic, and bonds between two nonmetals are covalent. Examination of the properties of a compound is the best way to characterize the type of bonding.
    • 2.1.A.5 In a metallic solid, the valence electrons from the metal atoms are considered to be delocalized and not associated with any individual atom.

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    一个化学键(chemical bond)是把原子维系在一起的一种吸引。哪种类型形成取决于原子的电负性:

    离子键合:一个金属把它的外层电子转移给一个非金属
    离子键合:一个金属把它的外层电子转移给一个非金属
    • 离子键(ionic bond):电子从一个金属转移到一个非金属(大的电负性差)。
    • 共价键(covalent bond):非金属共享电子(小的差)。一个大但不巨大的差给出一个极性共价(polar covalent)键。
    • 金属键(metallic bond):金属原子共享一"海"可移动的电子。
    A diamond crystal: giant covalent networks explain extreme hardness and high melting points
    A diamond crystal: giant covalent networks explain extreme hardness and high melting points
    探索

    Form an ionic bond by electron transfer

    An ionic bond forms when a metal gives electrons to a non-metal, making oppositely charged ions that attract; a covalent bond shares electrons instead.

    词汇表 训练
    英文 中文 拼音
    chemical bond 化学键 huà xué jiàn
    Ionic bond 离子键 lí zi jiàn
    Covalent bond 共价键 gòng jià jiàn
    polar covalent 极性共价 jí xìng gòng jià
    Metallic bond 金属键 jīn shǔ jiàn
    2.2

    分子内作用力与势能

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    2.2.A
    Represent the relationship between potential energy and distance between atoms, based on factors that influence the interaction strength.

    • 2.2.A.1 A graph of potential energy versus the distance between atoms (internuclear distance) is a useful representation for describing the interactions between atoms. Such graphs illustrate both the equilibrium bond length (the separation between atoms at which the potential energy is lowest) and the bond energy (the energy required to separate the atoms).
    • 2.2.A.2 In a covalent bond, the bond length is influenced by both the size of the atom's core and the bond order (i.e., single, double, triple). Bonds with a higher order are shorter and have larger bond energies.
    • 2.2.A.3 Coulomb's law can be used to understand the strength of interactions between cations and anions.
      • i. Because the interaction strength is proportional to the charge on each ion, larger charges lead to stronger interactions.
      • ii. Because the interaction strength increases as the distance between the centers of the ions (nuclei) decreases, smaller ions lead to stronger interactions.

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    当两个原子接近时,一条势能(potential energy)曲线捕捉吸引和排斥的平衡。它在键长(bond length)(稳定的间距)处降到一个最小值,它的深度是键能(bond energy)。更短、更强的键坐在更深、更紧的势阱里;更多共享对(双键、三键)给出更短、更强的键。

    词汇表 训练
    英文 中文 拼音
    potential energy 势能 shì néng
    bond length 键长 jiàn zhǎng
    bond energy 键能 jiàn néng
    2.3

    离子固体的结构

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    2.3.A
    Represent an ionic solid with a particulate model that is consistent with Coulomb's law and the properties of the constituent ions.

    • 2.3.A.1 The cations and anions in an ionic crystal are arranged in a systematic, periodic 3-D array that maximizes the attractive forces among cations and anions while minimizing the repulsive forces.
      • Exclusion statement: Knowledge of specific crystal structures is not essential to an understanding of the learning objective and will not be assessed on the AP Exam.

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    一个离子固体(ionic solid)是一个交替的阳离子和阴离子的重复三维晶格(lattice),由强的静电吸引维系。这解释它们高的熔点、脆性,以及为什么它们只在熔融或溶解时(离子被释放去移动)导电。晶格能(lattice energy)随着更大的离子电荷和更小的离子上升,所以 MgO(都是 $2+/2-$)比 NaCl(都是 $1+/1-$)熔化得高得多。

    离子堆积成一个交替的正离子和负离子的巨大晶格
    离子堆积成一个交替的正离子和负离子的巨大晶格
    词汇表 训练
    英文 中文 拼音
    ionic solid 离子固体 lí zi gù tǐ
    lattice 晶格 jīng gé
    2.4

    金属与合金的结构

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    2.4.A
    Represent a metallic solid and/or alloy using a model to show essential characteristics of the structure and interactions present in the substance.

    • 2.4.A.1 Metallic bonding can be represented as an array of positive metal ions surrounded by delocalized valence electrons (i.e., a "sea of electrons").
    • 2.4.A.2 Interstitial alloys form between atoms of significantly different radii, where the smaller atoms fill the interstitial spaces between the larger atoms (e.g., with steel in which carbon occupies the interstices in iron).
    • 2.4.A.3 Substitutional alloys form between atoms of comparable radius, where one atom substitutes for the other in the lattice. (e.g., in certain brass alloys, other elements, usually zinc, substitute for copper.)

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    在一个金属里,阳离子坐在一个浸浴在离域(delocalized)电子里的晶格里,这解释导电性、延展性和光泽。一个合金(alloy)混合金属:一个置换(substitutional)合金换入相似大小的原子;一个间隙(interstitial)合金(像钢)把小原子放进空隙里,使它更硬。

    一个合金里不同大小的原子阻止层滑动,所以它更硬
    一个合金里不同大小的原子阻止层滑动,所以它更硬
    金属键合:正离子在一海离域电子里
    金属键合:正离子在一海离域电子里
    Native copper: metallic bonding gives a shiny, malleable solid with delocalised electrons
    Native copper: metallic bonding gives a shiny, malleable solid with delocalised electrons
    探索

    Slide layers in a metallic lattice

    A metal is positive ions in a sea of delocalised electrons. The layers can slide without breaking the bond, so metals are malleable and conduct.

    词汇表 训练
    英文 中文 拼音
    delocalized 离域 lí yù
    alloy 合金 hé jīn
    2.5

    路易斯结构式

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    2.5.A
    Represent a molecule with a Lewis diagram.

    • 2.5.A.1 Lewis diagrams can be constructed according to an established set of principles.

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    一个路易斯结构(Lewis diagram)把价电子显示为成键对和孤对电子(lone pairs),给大多数原子一个八隅体(octet)(8 个价电子;H 想要 2)。步骤:数总价电子、用单键连接原子、完成外层原子的八隅体,然后若中心原子不足则形成多重键。

    点叉图显示一个分子里的成键对和孤对电子
    点叉图显示一个分子里的成键对和孤对电子

    Worked example. 画二氧化碳,$\text{CO}_2$。总价电子 $=4+2(6)=16$。把 C 放在中心;到每个 O 的单键用 $4$ 个电子并使外层 O 原子不足。完成八隅体迫使两个键,$\text{O}=\text{C}=\text{O}$:每个 O 然后有两个孤对、C 没有,而所有 $16$ 个电子都放置,每个原子都在一个八隅体。

    词汇表 训练
    英文 中文 拼音
    Lewis diagram 路易斯结构 lù yì sī jié gòu
    lone pairs 孤对电子 gū duì diàn zi
    octet 八隅体 bā yú tǐ
    2.6

    共振与形式电荷

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    2.6.A
    Represent a molecule with a Lewis diagram that accounts for resonance between equivalent structures or that uses formal charge to select between nonequivalent structures.

    • 2.6.A.1 In cases where more than one equivalent Lewis structure can be constructed, resonance must be included as a refinement to the Lewis structure. In many such cases, this refinement is needed to provide qualitatively accurate predictions of molecular structure and properties.
    • 2.6.A.2 The octet rule and formal charge can be used as criteria for determining which of several possible valid Lewis diagrams provides the best model for predicting molecular structure and properties.
    • 2.6.A.3 As with any model, there are limitations to the use of the Lewis structure model, particularly in cases with an odd number of valence electrons.

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    当两个或更多有效的路易斯结构只在电子放置上不同时,真正的结构是一个平均——共振(resonance)。形式电荷(formal charge)(价电子减孤对电子减成键电子的一半)挑选最好的结构:形式电荷最接近零、而任何负电荷在最电负的原子上的那个。

    Worked example. 在硝酸根离子 $\text{NO}_3^{-}$(一个双键、两个单键)里分配形式电荷。对 N(4 个键、无孤对):$5-0-4=+1$。对双键的 O(2 个孤对):$6-4-2=0$。对每个单键的 O(3 个孤对):$6-6-1=-1$。总量是 $+1+0+(-1)+(-1)=-1$,匹配离子的总电荷——一个结构画得正确的好检查。因为三个 O 原子由于共振是等价的,真正的离子有三个相同的键。

    词汇表 训练
    英文 中文 拼音
    resonance 共振 gòng zhèn
    Formal charge 形式电荷 xíng shì diàn hè
    2.7

    价层电子对互斥理论与杂化

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    2.7.A
    Based on the relationship between Lewis diagrams, VSEPR theory, bond orders, and bond polarities:

    • i. Explain structural properties of molecules.
    • ii. Explain electron properties of molecules.
    • 2.7.A.1 VSEPR theory uses the Coulombic repulsion between electrons as a basis for predicting the arrangement of electron pairs around a central atom.
    • 2.7.A.2 Both Lewis diagrams and VSEPR theory must be used for predicting electronic and structural properties of many covalently bonded molecules and polyatomic ions, including the following:
      • i. Molecular geometry (linear, trigonal planar, tetrahedral, trigonal pyramidal, bent, trigonal bipyramidal, seesaw, T-shaped, octahedral, square pyramidal, square planar)
      • ii. Bond angles
      • iii. Relative bond energies based on bond order
      • iv. Relative bond lengths (multiple bonds, effects of atomic radius)
      • v. Presence of a dipole moment
      • vi. Hybridization of valence orbitals for atoms within a molecule or polyatomic ion
    • 2.7.A.3 The terms "hybridization" and "hybrid atomic orbital" are used to describe the arrangement of electrons around a central atom. When the central atom is $sp$ hybridized, its ideal bond angles are $180°$; for $sp^2$ hybridized atoms the bond angles are $120°$; and for $sp^3$ hybridized atoms the bond angles are $109.5°$.
      • Exclusion statement: An understanding of the derivation and depiction of hybrid orbitals will not be assessed on the AP Exam. The course includes the distinction between sigma and pi bonding, the use of VSEPR to explain the shapes of molecules, and the $sp$, $sp^2$, and $sp^3$ nomenclature.
      • Exclusion statement: Hybridization involving d orbitals will not be assessed on the AP Exam. When an atom has more than four pairs of electrons surrounding the central atom, students are only responsible for the shape of the resulting molecule.
    • 2.7.A.4 Bond formation is associated with overlap between atomic orbitals. In multiple bonds, such overlap leads to the formation of both sigma and pi bonds. The overlap is stronger in sigma than pi bonds, which is reflected in sigma bonds having greater bond energy than pi bonds. The presence of a pi bond also prevents the rotation of the bond and leads to geometric isomers.
      • Exclusion statement: Molecular orbital theory is recommended as a way to provide deeper insight into bonding. However, the AP Exam will neither explicitly assess molecular orbital diagrams, filling of molecular orbitals, nor the distinction between bonding, nonbonding, and antibonding orbitals.

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    VSEPR 分子构型

    价层电子对互斥(VSEPR)理论预测形状:一个中心原子周围的电子对(键和孤对)尽可能远地散开。数电子域给出几何(直线、平面三角、四面体……);孤对把键推得更近,弯曲形状。杂化(hybridization)($sp$$sp^2$$sp^3$)描述匹配那个几何的混合轨道。分子形状和键极性一起决定整个分子是否极性。

    杂化和形状:sp3 四面体、sp2 平面、sp 直线
    杂化和形状:sp3 四面体、sp2 平面、sp 直线
    常见的 VSEPR 形状及其键角
    常见的 VSEPR 形状及其键角

    Worked example. 预测氨 $\text{NH}_3$ 的形状。氮有 $3$ 个成键对和 $1$ 个孤对——四个电子域,所以电子几何是四面体而杂化是 $sp^3$。孤对在形状里不可见但仍把键推到一起,所以分子形状是三角锥,键角约 $107^{\circ}$(比理想的 $109.5^{\circ}$ 稍小)。三个 N–H 偶极不抵消,所以分子是极性的。

    键在原子轨道重叠时形成。每一个单键是一个 σ 键(sigma bond)——轨道沿着连接两个原子的直线头对头重叠。一个多重键增加一个 π 键(pi bond),由 $p$ 轨道在那条线的上方和下方侧向重叠形成:一个双键是一个 σ 加一个 π,一个三键是一个 σ 加两个 π。头对头重叠更有效,所以一个 σ 键比一个 π 键更强(更高键能)——这就是为什么一个双键比一个单键强,却不是两倍强。一个 π 键还锁住两个原子使它们不能绕键旋转;所以一个 C=C 双键有固定的顺式(cis)和反式(trans)形式——几何异构体(geometric isomers),这是一个自由旋转的单键永远无法显示的。

    Worked example. 数一数乙烯 $\text{H}_2\text{C}=\text{CH}_2$ 里的键。四个 C–H 键是单键(每个一个 σ);C=C 是一个 σ 加一个 π。所以乙烯有 5 个 σ 和 1 个 π 键,而那一个 π 键正是阻止两个 $\text{CH}_2$ 端相对扭转的原因。

    探索

    Predict molecular shape with VSEPR

    VSEPR: electron pairs repel and spread as far apart as possible, setting the molecule's shape. Add bonding and lone pairs and watch the geometry change.

    词汇表 训练
    英文 中文 拼音
    VSEPR 价层电子对互斥 jià céng diàn zi duì hù chì
    Hybridization 杂化 zá huà
    sigma bond σ键 σ jiàn
    pi bond π键 π jiàn
    geometric isomers 几何异构体 jǐ hé yì gòu tǐ
    练习卷
    2.7

    考试技巧

    • 从原子决定键类型:离子(金属 + 非金属,电子转移)、共价(非金属,共享)、金属(离域电子的海)。
    • 一个离子固体只在熔融或溶解时(离子自由移动)导电,作为固体从不。
    • 路易斯结构以满足八隅体(H 想要 2),然后用 VSEPR ——电子对尽可能远地散开——来预测形状。
    • 孤对占据空间并把键推得更近,弯曲形状(水是弯的、氨是锥形的)。
    • 一个分子能有极性键,却整体上非极性,若它的对称使偶极抵消($\text{CO}_2$)。
  • 3

    物质与混合物的性质

    讲义 词汇表
    3.1

    分子间与粒子间作用力

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    3.1.A
    Explain the relationship between the chemical structures of molecules and the relative strength of their intermolecular forces when:
    i. The molecules are of the same chemical species.
    ii. The molecules are of two different chemical species.

    • 3.1.A.1 London dispersion forces are a result of the Coulombic interactions between temporary, fluctuating dipoles. London dispersion forces are often the strongest net intermolecular force between large molecules.
      • i. Dispersion forces increase with increasing contact area between molecules and with increasing polarizability of the molecules.
      • ii. The polarizability of a molecule increases with an increasing number of electrons in the molecule and the size of the electron cloud. It is enhanced by the presence of pi bonding.
      • iii. The term "London dispersion forces" should not be used synonymously with the term "van der Waals forces."
    • 3.1.A.2 The dipole moment of a polar molecule leads to additional interactions with other chemical species.
      • i. Dipole-induced dipole interactions are present between a polar and nonpolar molecule. These forces are always attractive. The strength of these forces increases with the magnitude of the dipole of the polar molecule and with the polarizability of the nonpolar molecule.
      • ii. Dipole-dipole interactions are present between polar molecules. The interaction strength depends on the magnitudes of the dipoles and their relative orientation. Interactions between polar molecules are typically greater than those between nonpolar molecules of comparable size because these interactions act in addition to London dispersion forces.
      • iii. Ion-dipole forces of attraction are present between ions and polar molecules. These tend to be stronger than dipole-dipole forces.
    • 3.1.A.3 The relative strength and orientation dependence of dipole-dipole and ion-dipole forces can be understood qualitatively by considering the sign of the partial charges responsible for the molecular dipole moment, and how these partial charges interact with an ion or with an adjacent dipole.
    • 3.1.A.4 Hydrogen bonding is a strong type of intermolecular interaction that exists when hydrogen atoms covalently bonded to the highly electronegative atoms (N, O, and F) are attracted to the negative end of a dipole formed by the electronegative atom (N, O, and F) in a different molecule, or a different part of the same molecule.
    • 3.1.A.5 In large biomolecules, noncovalent interactions may occur between different molecules or between different regions of the same large biomolecule.

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    分子间作用力(intermolecular forces)(IMFs)是分子之间的吸引——比键弱得多,但它们设定熔点/沸点。从最弱到最强:

    伦敦色散:一个瞬时偶极在一个邻居里诱导一个偶极
    伦敦色散:一个瞬时偶极在一个邻居里诱导一个偶极
    氢键:一个 N/O/F 上的 H 被吸引到另一个分子上的一个孤对
    氢键:一个 N/O/F 上的 H 被吸引到另一个分子上的一个孤对
    • 伦敦色散力(London dispersion forces):存在于所有分子里;它源于瞬时的、涨落的偶极之间的库仑吸引,对更大、更可极化的电子云更强 —— 在大分子之间往往是最强的净作用力。
    • 偶极-偶极(dipole–dipole):在极性分子之间。它的强度取决于偶极的大小以及它们的相对取向 —— 一个 $\delta+$ 端与相邻分子的 $\delta-$ 端对齐就会吸引,所以它是在色散之上额外起作用的,这让极性分子比大小相近的非极性分子更"黏"。
    • 氢键(hydrogen bonding):当 H 键合到 N、O 或 F 时的一个强的偶极力。
    • 离子-偶极(ion–dipole):在一个离子和一个极性分子之间(离子拉住偶极中带相反电荷的那一端)。它是这里四者中最强的(甚至强于氢键),正是它让水能溶解一种离子固体 —— 每个 $\text{Na}^+$ 都被水分子的 $\delta-$ 氧端所包围。

    整个强度阶梯都可以定性地通过看部分电荷的正负号来理解:部分电荷越大、对齐得越好,或者是一个完整的离子电荷,吸引就越强。更强的 IMFs 意味着更高的沸点和更低的蒸气压。这就是为什么水($18\ \text{g/mol}$,氢键合)在 $100\,{}^{\circ}\text{C}$ 沸腾,而甲烷($16\ \text{g/mol}$,只有色散)在 $-162\,{}^{\circ}\text{C}$ 沸腾。

    词汇表 训练
    英文 中文 拼音
    Intermolecular forces 分子间作用力 fèn zǐ jiàn zuò yòng lì
    London dispersion forces 伦敦色散力 lún dūn sè sàn lì
    Dipole–dipole 偶极-偶极 ǒu jí - ǒu jí
    Ion–dipole 离子-偶极 lí zi - ǒu jí
    Hydrogen bonding 氢键 qīng jiàn
    3.2

    固体的性质

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    3.2.A
    Explain the relationship among the macroscopic properties of a substance, the particulate-level structure of the substance, and the interactions between these particles.

    • 3.2.A.1 Many properties of liquids and solids are determined by the strengths and types of intermolecular forces present. Because intermolecular interactions are overcome completely when a substance vaporizes, the vapor pressure and boiling point are directly related to the strength of those interactions. Melting points also tend to correlate with interaction strength, but because the interactions are only rearranged, in melting, the relations can be more subtle.
    • 3.2.A.2 Particulate-level representations, showing multiple interacting chemical species, are a useful means to communicate or understand how intermolecular interactions help to establish macroscopic properties.
    • 3.2.A.3 Due to strong interactions between ions, ionic solids tend to have low vapor pressures, high melting points, and high boiling points. They tend to be brittle due to the repulsion of like charges caused when one layer slides across another layer. They conduct electricity only when the ions are mobile, as when the ionic solid is melted (i.e., in a molten state) or dissolved in water or another solvent.
    • 3.2.A.4 In covalent network solids, the atoms are covalently bonded together into a three-dimensional network (e.g., diamond) or layers of two-dimensional networks (e.g., graphite). These are only formed from nonmetals and metalloids: elemental (e.g., diamond, graphite) or binary compounds (e.g., silicon dioxide and silicon carbide). Due to the strong covalent interactions, covalent solids have high melting points. Three-dimensional network solids are also rigid and hard, because the covalent bond angles are fixed. However, graphite is soft because adjacent layers can slide past each other relatively easily.
    • 3.2.A.5 Molecular solids are composed of distinct, individual units of covalently-bonded molecules attracted to each other through relatively weak intermolecular forces. Molecular solids generally have a low melting point because of the relatively weak intermolecular forces present between the molecules. They do not conduct electricity because their valence electrons are tightly held within the covalent bonds and the lone pairs of each constituent molecule. Molecular solids are sometimes composed of very large molecules or polymers.
    • 3.2.A.6 Metallic solids are good conductors of electricity and heat, due to the presence of free valence electrons. They also tend to be malleable and ductile, due to the ease with which the metal cores can rearrange their structure. In an interstitial alloy, interstitial atoms tend to make the lattice more rigid, decreasing malleability and ductility. Alloys typically retain a sea of mobile electrons and so remain conducting.
    • 3.2.A.7 In large biomolecules or polymers, noncovalent interactions may occur between different molecules or between different regions of the same large biomolecule. The functionality and properties of such molecules depend strongly on the shape of the molecule, which is largely dictated by noncovalent interactions.

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    一个固体的性质反映维系它的粒子和作用力:离子共价网络(covalent-network)(像金刚石这样的三维网络非常硬、高熔点;石墨是一个分层的例外——高熔点但软,因为它的二维层能相互滑动)、金属,和分子固体(由弱的 IMFs 维系、软、低熔点)。把一个固体的性质匹配到它的结构是一个常见的考试任务。

    金属固体导电导热,并且是可锻的(malleable)和可延展的(ductile),这全都是因为它的自由价电子(free valence electrons)易于移动,并让金属离子在不破坏键合的情况下彼此滑过。固体还分为晶体(crystalline)(粒子排成规则、重复的三维排列)或非晶体(amorphous)(没有长程有序,像玻璃)。

    四种固体结构:巨型离子、简单分子、巨型共价和金属
    四种固体结构:巨型离子、简单分子、巨型共价和金属
    词汇表 训练
    英文 中文 拼音
    malleable 可锻的 kě duàn de
    ductile 可延展的 kě yán zhǎn de
    free valence electrons 自由价电子 zì yóu jià diàn zi
    crystalline 晶体 jīng tǐ
    amorphous 非晶体 fēi jīng tǐ
    3.3

    固体、液体与气体

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    3.3.A
    Represent the differences between solid, liquid, and gas phases using a particulate-level model.

    • 3.3.A.1 Solids can be crystalline, where the particles are arranged in a regular three-dimensional structure, or they can be amorphous, where the particles do not have a regular, orderly arrangement. In both cases, the motion of the individual particles is limited, and the particles do not undergo overall translation with respect to each other. The structure of the solid is influenced by interparticle interactions and the ability of the particles to pack together.
    • 3.3.A.2 The constituent particles in liquids are in close contact with each other, and they are continually moving and colliding. The arrangement and movement of particles are influenced by the nature and strength of the forces (e.g., polarity, hydrogen bonding, and temperature) between the particles.
    • 3.3.A.3 The solid and liquid phases for a particular substance typically have similar molar volume because, in both phases, the constituent particles are in close contact at all times.
    • 3.3.A.4 In the gas phase, the particles are in constant motion. Their frequencies of collision and the average spacing between them are dependent on temperature, pressure, and volume. Because of this constant motion, and minimal effects of forces between particles, a gas has neither a definite volume nor a definite shape.
      • Exclusion Statement: Understanding/interpreting phase diagrams will not be assessed on the AP Exam.

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    三种状态在粒子被维系得多紧上不同。上升的温度(temperature)提高平均动能;当它克服吸引时,物质熔化或沸腾。气体大多是空的空间,所以它们可压缩并填满它们的容器。

    粒子在一个固体里堆积、在一个液体里靠近但可移动,而在一个气体里远离
    粒子在一个固体里堆积、在一个液体里靠近但可移动,而在一个气体里远离
    Steam rising from boiling water: gases expand to fill space and obey the ideal gas law at high T and low P
    Steam rising from boiling water: gases expand to fill space and obey the ideal gas law at high T and low P
    探索

    Melt and boil by adding heat

    Temperature sets the average kinetic energy of the particles. Warm a solid and the particles break their fixed pattern (melt), then spread right out (boil).

    3.4

    理想气体定律

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    3.4.A
    Explain the relationship between the macroscopic properties of a sample of gas or mixture of gases using the ideal gas law.

    • 3.4.A.1 The macroscopic properties of ideal gases are related through the ideal gas law:
      • EQN: $PV = nRT$.
    • 3.4.A.2 In a sample containing a mixture of ideal gases, the pressure exerted by each component (the partial pressure) is independent of the other components. Therefore, the partial pressure of a gas within the mixture is proportional to its mole fraction ($X$), and the total pressure of the sample is the sum of the partial pressures.
      • EQN: $P_{A} = P_{total} \times X_{A}$, where $X_{A} =$ moles A/total moles;
      • EQN: $P_{total} = P_{A} + P_{B} + P_{C} + \ldots$
    • 3.4.A.3 Graphical representations of the relationships between $P$, $V$, $T$, and $n$ are useful to describe gas behavior.

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    一个理想气体(ideal gas)遵循

    $$PV=nRT,$$
    联系压力、体积、摩尔和绝对温度。用它从其他量求任何一个量,或(保持一些恒定)预测一个气体如何对一个变化反应。

    一个理想气体是一个之间没有作用力的点粒子模型
    一个理想气体是一个之间没有作用力的点粒子模型

    Worked example.$300\ \text{K}$$1.5\ \text{atm}$ 下多少摩尔气体填满一个 $2.0\ \text{L}$ 容器?用 $R=0.0821\ \text{L atm/(mol K)}$,

    $$n=\frac{PV}{RT}=\frac{1.5\times2.0}{0.0821\times300}=0.12\ \text{mol}.$$
    $T$ 总是用开尔文(kelvin),并把 $R$ 的单位匹配到你的压力和体积。

    探索

    Compress a gas and watch the pressure

    $PV = nRT$. At fixed temperature, squeezing the gas into a smaller volume packs the molecules closer, so they hit the walls more often and the pressure rises.

    3.5

    分子运动论

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    3.5.A
    Explain the relationship between the motion of particles and the macroscopic properties of gases with:
    i. The kinetic molecular theory (KMT).
    ii. A particulate model.
    iii. A graphical representation.

    • 3.5.A.1 The kinetic molecular theory (KMT) relates the macroscopic properties of gases to motions of the particles in the gas. The Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution describes the distribution of the kinetic energies of particles at a given temperature.
    • 3.5.A.2 All the particles in a sample of matter are in continuous, random motion. The average kinetic energy of a particle is related to its average velocity by the equation:
      • EQN: $KE = \frac{1}{2}\,mv^{2}$.
    • 3.5.A.3 The Kelvin temperature of a sample of matter is proportional to the average kinetic energy of the particles in the sample.
    • 3.5.A.4 The Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution provides a graphical representation of the energies/velocities of particles at a given temperature.

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    气体分子运动论:压强

    分子运动论(kinetic molecular theory)解释气体行为:粒子微小、处于不断的随机运动、体积可忽略而没有吸引,而碰撞是弹性的。温度与平均动能成比例,所以在一个给定温度下更轻的分子移动得更快(格雷姆逸散定律)。

    分子速率的麦克斯韦-玻尔兹曼分布在加热时向右移
    分子速率的麦克斯韦-玻尔兹曼分布在加热时向右移
    探索

    Heat a gas and watch the speed spread

    Gas molecules have a range of speeds. Raising the temperature shifts the whole distribution to higher speeds and flattens it, so more molecules move fast.

    词汇表 训练
    英文 中文 拼音
    Kinetic molecular theory 分子运动论 fēn zǐ yùn dòng lùn
    练习卷
    3.6

    偏离理想气体定律

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    3.6.A
    Explain the relationship among non-ideal behaviors of gases, interparticle forces, and/or volumes.

    • 3.6.A.1 The ideal gas law does not explain the actual behavior of real gases. Deviations from the ideal gas law may result from interparticle attractions among gas molecules, particularly at conditions that are close to those resulting in condensation. Deviations may also arise from particle volumes, particularly at extremely high pressures.

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    真实气体(real gases)在高压低温下偏离理想行为,那里分子足够近以致它们的真实体积和它们的吸引重要。吸引把压力降到理想以下;分子体积把它提高。

    3.7

    溶液与混合物

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    3.7.A
    Calculate the number of solute particles, volume, or molarity of solutions.

    • 3.7.A.1 Solutions, also sometimes called homogeneous mixtures, can be solids, liquids, or gases. In a solution, the macroscopic properties do not vary throughout the sample. In a heterogeneous mixture, the macroscopic properties depend on location in the mixture.
    • 3.7.A.2 Solution composition can be expressed in a variety of ways; molarity is the most common method used in the laboratory.
      • EQN: $M = n_{solute}/L_{solution}$

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    一个溶液(solution)是溶解在一个溶剂(solvent)里的一个溶质(solute)的均相混合物。浓度通常是摩尔浓度(molarity):

    $$M=\frac{\text{moles of solute}}{\text{liters of solution}}.$$
    稀释(dilution)守恒摩尔:$M_1V_1=M_2V_2$

    Worked example. 你必须向 $50\ \text{mL}$$6.0\ \text{M}$ HCl 加多少体积的水来使它成为 $2.0\ \text{M}$?HCl 的摩尔不变,所以 $M_1V_1=M_2V_2$ 给出最终体积 $V_2=\dfrac{M_1V_1}{M_2}=\dfrac{6.0\times50}{2.0}=150\ \text{mL}$。因此你 $150-50=100\ \text{mL}$ 的水。

    词汇表 训练
    英文 中文 拼音
    solution 溶液 róng yè
    solute 溶质 róng zhì
    solvent 溶剂 róng jì
    molarity 摩尔浓度 mó ěr nóng dù
    3.8

    溶液的表示方法

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    3.8.A
    Using particulate models for mixtures:
    i. Represent interactions between components.
    ii. Represent concentrations of components.

    • 3.8.A.1 Particulate representations of solutions communicate the structure and properties of solutions, by illustration of the relative concentrations of the components in the solution and/or drawings that show interactions among the components.
      • Exclusion Statement: Colligative properties will not be assessed on the AP Exam.
      • Exclusion Statement: Calculations of molality, percent by mass, and percent by volume for solutions will not be assessed on the AP Exam.

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    一个微粒图(particulate diagram)显示溶质和溶剂粒子。对于一个离子溶质,把它显示为完全解离(dissociated)成被溶剂围绕的分开的离子;数粒子以推理浓度和导电性。

    3.9

    溶液与混合物的分离

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    3.9.A
    Explain the results of a separation experiment based on intermolecular interactions.

    • 3.9.A.1 The components of a liquid solution cannot be separated by filtration. They can, however, be separated using processes that take advantage of differences in the intermolecular interactions of the components.
      • i. Chromatography (paper, thin-layer, and column) separates chemical species by taking advantage of the differential strength of intermolecular interactions between and among the components of the solution (the mobile phase) and with the surface components of the stationary phase. The resulting chromatogram can be used to infer the relative polarities of components in a mixture.
      • ii. Distillation separates chemical species by taking advantage of the differential strength of intermolecular interactions between and among the components and the effects these interactions have on the vapor pressures of the components in the mixture.

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    因为一个混合物的组分保持它们的性质,物理方法分离它们:过滤(filtration)(按粒子大小)、蒸馏(distillation)(按沸点),和色谱法(chromatography)(按每个组分多强地粘附在一个固定相上与随一个溶剂移动)。

    纸色谱在溶剂沿纸上升时分离一个混合物
    纸色谱在溶剂沿纸上升时分离一个混合物
    词汇表 训练
    英文 中文 拼音
    chromatography 色谱法 sè pǔ fǎ
    3.10

    溶解度

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    3.10.A
    Explain the relationship between the solubility of ionic and molecular compounds in aqueous and nonaqueous solvents, and the intermolecular interactions between particles.

    • 3.10.A.1 Substances with similar intermolecular interactions tend to be miscible or soluble in one another.

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    溶解度(solubility)是多少溶质溶解。"相似相溶":极性(和离子)溶质在极性溶剂里溶解;非极性在非极性里。溶解发生在溶质-溶剂吸引与被破坏的吸引相当时。

    一簇又大又亮、玻璃般的蓝色硫酸铜晶体
    从溶液中长出的蓝色硫酸铜(II)晶体:一份饱和溶液放置蒸发,会把溶解的固体以规则晶体的形式重新析出
    词汇表 训练
    英文 中文 拼音
    Solubility 溶解度 róng jiě dù
    3.11

    光谱学与电磁波谱

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    3.11.A
    Explain the relationship between a region of the electromagnetic spectrum and the types of molecular or electronic transitions associated with that region.

    • 3.11.A.1 Differences in absorption or emission of photons in different spectral regions are related to the different types of molecular motion or electronic transition:
      • i. Microwave radiation is associated with transitions in molecular rotational levels.
      • ii. Infrared radiation is associated with transitions in molecular vibrational levels.
      • iii. Ultraviolet/visible radiation is associated with transitions in electronic energy levels.

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    光谱学(spectroscopy)研究物质如何吸收或发射光。电磁谱(electromagnetic spectrum)的不同区域探测不同的变化:微波(转动)、红外(键振动)、紫外-可见(电子跃迁)。吸收的光揭示结构。

    探索

    Scan across the electromagnetic spectrum

    Light is a wave with a range of wavelengths. Shorter wavelength means higher frequency and more energy per photon, from radio waves up to gamma rays.

    词汇表 训练
    英文 中文 拼音
    Spectroscopy 光谱学 guāng pǔ xué
    3.12

    光子的性质

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    3.12.A
    Explain the properties of an absorbed or emitted photon in relationship to an electronic transition in an atom or molecule.

    • 3.12.A.1 When a photon is absorbed (or emitted) by an atom or molecule, the energy of the species is increased (or decreased) by an amount equal to the energy of the photon.

    • 3.12.A.2 The wavelength of the electromagnetic wave is related to its frequency and the speed of light by the equation:

      • EQN: $c = \lambda\nu$.

      The energy of a photon is related to the frequency of the electromagnetic wave through Planck's equation:

      • EQN: $E = h\nu$.

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    光由光子(photons)携带,每个带能量 $E=h\nu=\dfrac{hc}{\lambda}$。更高的频率(更短的波长)意味着更高的能量。一个分子只在它的能量匹配一个允许的能隙时才吸收一个光子。

    词汇表 训练
    英文 中文 拼音
    photons 光子 guāng zi
    3.13

    比尔-朗伯定律

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    3.13.A
    Explain the amount of light absorbed by a solution of molecules or ions in relationship to the concentration, path length, and molar absorptivity.

    • 3.13.A.1 The Beer-Lambert law relates the absorption of light by a solution to three variables according to the equation:

      • EQN: $A = \varepsilon bc$.

      The molar absorptivity, $\varepsilon$, describes how intensely a chemical species absorbs light of a specific wavelength. The path length, $b$, and concentration, $c$, are proportional to the number of light-absorbing particles in the light path.

    • 3.13.A.2 In most experiments the path length and wavelength of light are held constant. In such cases, the absorbance is proportional only to the concentration of absorbing molecules or ions. The spectrophotometer is typically set to the wavelength of maximum absorbance (optimum wavelength) for the species being analyzed to ensure the maximum sensitivity of measurement.

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    比尔-朗伯定律(Beer–Lambert law)把一个溶液吸收多少光与它的浓度关联:

    $$A=\varepsilon\,b\,c,$$
    其中 $A$ 是吸光度、$\varepsilon$ 是摩尔吸光系数、$b$ 是光程,而 $c$ 是浓度。因为 $A$$c$ 成比例,测量吸光度是求一个未知浓度的一个快速方式。

    Worked example. 一种染料有摩尔吸光系数 $\varepsilon=2000\ \text{L/(mol cm)}$;在一个 $1.0\ \text{cm}$ 的比色皿里一个样本读吸光度 $A=0.40$。它的浓度是 $c=\dfrac{A}{\varepsilon b}=\dfrac{0.40}{2000\times1.0}=2.0\times10^{-4}\ \text{M}$。因为 $A\propto c$,一个浓度两倍的溶液会读 $A=0.80$ ——一条校准曲线的基础。

    探索

    Link absorbance to concentration

    The Beer-Lambert law says absorbance $A = \varepsilon b c$: absorbance is proportional to concentration, so a calibration line lets you read an unknown concentration.

    词汇表 训练
    英文 中文 拼音
    Beer–Lambert law 比尔-朗伯定律 bǐ ěr - lǎng bó dìng lǜ
    3.13

    考试技巧

    • 分子间作用力(色散 < 偶极-偶极 < 氢键)设定沸点——它们比一个分子里面的键弱得多。
    • 沸腾破坏分子之间的作用力,不是它们里面的共价键。
    • $PV=nRT$,温度以开尔文计而 $R$ 匹配你的压力/体积单位。
    • 对溶液用摩尔浓度 $M=\text{mol}/\text{L}$;稀释守恒摩尔,所以 $M_1V_1=M_2V_2$
    • "相似相溶"——极性/离子溶质在极性溶剂里溶解,非极性在非极性里。
  • 4

    化学反应

    讲义 词汇表
    4.1

    化学反应导论

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    4.1.A
    Identify evidence of chemical and physical changes in matter.

    • 4.1.A.1 A physical change occurs when a substance undergoes a change in properties but not a change in composition. Changes in the phase of a substance (solid, liquid, gas) or formation/separation of mixtures of substances are common physical changes.
    • 4.1.A.2 A chemical change occurs when substances are transformed into new substances, typically with different compositions. Production of heat or light, formation of a gas, formation of a precipitate, and/or color change provide possible evidence that a chemical change has occurred.

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    一个化学反应(chemical reaction)把原子重新排列成新物质。一个已经发生的迹象:一个颜色变化、一个气体或沉淀(precipitate)形成,或一个温度变化。原子守恒,所以一个方程必须配平(balanced)——两侧每个元素的数目相同。

    词汇表 训练
    英文 中文 拼音
    chemical reaction 化学反应 huà xué fǎn yìng
    precipitate 沉淀 chén diàn
    4.2

    净离子方程式

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    4.2.A
    Represent changes in matter with a balanced chemical or net ionic equation:
    i. For physical changes.
    ii. For given information about the identity of the reactants and/or product.
    iii. For ions in a given chemical reaction.

    • 4.2.A.1 All physical and chemical processes can be represented symbolically by balanced equations.
    • 4.2.A.2 Chemical equations represent chemical changes. These changes are the result of a rearrangement of atoms into new combinations; thus, any representation of a chemical change must contain equal numbers of atoms of every element before and after the change occurred. Equations thus demonstrate that mass and charge are conserved in chemical reactions.
    • 4.2.A.3 Balanced molecular, complete ionic, and net ionic equations are differing symbolic forms used to represent a chemical reaction. The form used to represent the reaction depends on the context in which it is to be used.

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    对于在水里的反应,离子化合物分裂成离子。一个净离子方程式(net ionic equation)只显示实际变化的物种,略去在两侧不变出现的旁观离子(spectator ions)。它捕捉真正的化学(例如 $\text{Ag}^+ + \text{Cl}^- \rightarrow \text{AgCl}(s)$)。

    混合两个溶液能形成一个不溶的沉淀
    混合两个溶液能形成一个不溶的沉淀
    词汇表 训练
    英文 中文 拼音
    net ionic equation 净离子方程式 jìng lí zi fāng chéng shì
    spectator ions 旁观离子 páng guān lí zi
    4.3

    反应的表示方法

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    4.3.A
    Represent a given chemical reaction or physical process with a consistent particulate model.

    • 4.3.A.1 Balanced chemical equations in their various forms can be translated into symbolic particulate representations.

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    同一个反应能被显示为一个符号方程、一幅微粒图(原子和分子),和一个宏观观察(你看到的)。在这些层次之间移动——把方程连接到粒子连接到烧杯——是一项核心技能。

    一个配平的方程两侧每个原子的数目相同
    一个配平的方程两侧每个原子的数目相同
    4.4

    物理变化与化学变化

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    4.4.A
    Explain the relationship between macroscopic characteristics and bond interactions for:
    i. Chemical processes.
    ii. Physical processes.

    • 4.4.A.1 Processes that involve the breaking and/or formation of chemical bonds are typically classified as chemical processes. Processes that involve only changes in intermolecular interactions, such as phase changes, are typically classified as physical processes.
    • 4.4.A.2 Sometimes physical processes involve the breaking of chemical bonds. For example, plausible arguments could be made for the dissolution of a salt in water, as either a physical or chemical process, involves breaking of ionic bonds, and the formation of ion-dipole interactions between ions and solvent.

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    一个物理变化(physical change)改变形式但不改变身份(熔化、溶解);一个化学变化(chemical change)通过破坏和形成键制造新物质。溶解盐是物理的;盐不变并可回收。

    词汇表 训练
    英文 中文 拼音
    physical change 物理变化 wù lǐ biàn huà
    chemical change 化学变化 huà xué biàn huà
    4.5

    化学计量

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    4.5.A
    Explain changes in the amounts of reactants and products based on the balanced reaction equation for a chemical process.

    • 4.5.A.1 Because atoms must be conserved during a chemical process, it is possible to calculate product amounts by using known reactant amounts, or to calculate reactant amounts given known product amounts.
    • 4.5.A.2 Coefficients of balanced chemical equations contain information regarding the proportionality of the amounts of substances involved in the reaction. These values can be used in chemical calculations involving the mole concept.
    • 4.5.A.3 Stoichiometric calculations can be combined with the ideal gas law and calculations involving molarity to quantitatively study gases and solutions.

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    化学计量(stoichiometry)用配平方程的摩尔比来关联反应物和产物的量。路径总是 克 → 摩尔 → (摩尔比) → 摩尔 → 克。限量反应物(limiting reactant)首先耗尽并设定最大产物(理论产量(theoretical yield));百分产率(percent yield)把实际与理论比较。

    限量反应物首先耗尽并决定形成多少产物
    限量反应物首先耗尽并决定形成多少产物

    Worked example.$4.0\ \text{g}$ 的氢在过量氧里燃烧时形成多少水?$2\text{H}_2+\text{O}_2\rightarrow2\text{H}_2\text{O}$。转换成摩尔、跨过摩尔比(这里 $2:2=1:1$)、转换回:

    $$n(\text{H}_2)=\frac{4.0}{2.0}=2.0\ \text{mol}\;\Rightarrow\;n(\text{H}_2\text{O})=2.0\ \text{mol}\;\Rightarrow\;m=2.0\times18=36\ \text{g}.$$

    Worked example (limiting reactant). $10.0\ \text{g}$ 的 N$_2$$5.0\ \text{g}$ 的 H$_2$ 反应($\text{N}_2+3\text{H}_2\rightarrow2\text{NH}_3$)。哪个耗尽?摩尔:$n(\text{N}_2)=10.0/28=0.36$,$n(\text{H}_2)=5.0/2=2.5$。反应每 N$_2$ 需要 $3$ H$_2$;你有 $2.5/0.36=7.0$,远多于 $3$,所以 N$_2$ 是限量的。它制造 $2\times0.36=0.72\ \text{mol}$ 的氨,有氢剩余。

    探索

    Scale reactants and products by the mole ratio

    A balanced equation fixes the mole ratio between species. Product amount is proportional to the limiting reactant, scaled by that ratio.

    词汇表 训练
    英文 中文 拼音
    Stoichiometry 化学计量 huà xué jì liàng
    limiting reactant 限量反应物 xiàn liàng fǎn yìng wù
    theoretical yield 理论产量 lǐ lùn chǎn liàng
    4.6

    滴定导论

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    4.6.A
    Identify the equivalence point in a titration based on the amounts of the titrant and analyte, assuming the titration reaction goes to completion.

    • 4.6.A.1 Titrations may be used to determine the amount of an analyte in solution. The titrant has a known concentration of a species that reacts specifically and quantitatively with the analyte. The equivalence point of the titration occurs when the analyte is totally consumed by the reacting species in the titrant. The equivalence point is often indicated by a change in a property (such as color) that occurs when the equivalence point is reached. This observable event is called the endpoint of the titration.

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    酸碱滴定曲线

    一个滴定(titration)通过把一个未知浓度与一个已知浓度的溶液反应直到它们达到等当点(equivalence point)(化学计量相等)来求它。从已知的体积和浓度,用摩尔比来求未知的。一个指示剂(indicator)或一条 pH 曲线发出终点信号。

    滴定装置:一个滴定管把一个已知溶液送入一个锥形瓶
    滴定装置:一个滴定管把一个已知溶液送入一个锥形瓶

    Worked example. $25.0\ \text{mL}$ 的盐酸被 $30.0\ \text{mL}$$0.100\ \text{M}$ NaOH 恰好中和。求酸的浓度。反应是 $1:1$,所以摩尔匹配:

    $$n(\text{NaOH})=0.0300\times0.100=3.00\times10^{-3}\ \text{mol}=n(\text{HCl}),\qquad [\text{HCl}]=\frac{3.00\times10^{-3}}{0.0250}=0.120\ \text{M}.$$

    A titration setup: reacting volumes from a burette find the concentration of an unknown solution
    A titration setup: reacting volumes from a burette find the concentration of an unknown solution
    探索

    Titrate an acid and find the equivalence point

    Adding base to acid raises the pH slowly, then sharply at the equivalence point where moles of acid and base are equal. The steep jump locates that volume.

    词汇表 训练
    英文 中文 拼音
    titration 滴定 dī dìng
    equivalence point 等当点 děng dāng diǎn
    4.7

    化学反应的类型

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    4.7.A
    Identify a reaction as acid-base, oxidation-reduction, or precipitation.

    • 4.7.A.1 Acid-base reactions involve transfer of one or more protons ($\text{H}^+$ ions) between chemical species.
    • 4.7.A.2 Oxidation-reduction (redox) reactions involve transfer of one or more electrons between chemical species, as indicated by changes in oxidation numbers of the involved species. Combustion is an important subclass of oxidation-reduction reactions, in which a species reacts with oxygen gas. In the case of hydrocarbons, carbon dioxide and water are products of complete combustion.
    • 4.7.A.3 In a redox reaction, electrons are transferred from the species that is oxidized to the species that is reduced.
      • Exclusion statement: The meaning of the terms "reducing agent" and "oxidizing agent" will not be assessed on the AP Exam.
    • 4.7.A.4 Oxidation numbers may be assigned to each of the atoms in the reactants and products; this is often an effective way to identify the oxidized and reduced species in a redox reaction.
    • 4.7.A.5 Precipitation reactions frequently involve mixing ions in aqueous solution to produce an insoluble or sparingly soluble ionic compound. All sodium, potassium, ammonium, and nitrate salts are soluble in water.
      • Exclusion statement: Rote memorization of "solubility rules" other than those implied in 4.7.A.5 will not be assessed on the AP Exam.

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    常见的模式包括化合(synthesis)(结合)、分解(decomposition)(拆开)、燃烧(combustion)(与氧,释放能量)、沉淀(precipitation)(形成一个不溶的固体)、酸-碱(acid–base)(质子转移),和氧化还原(redox)(电子转移)。辨认类型帮助预测产物。

    词汇表 训练
    英文 中文 拼音
    acid suān
    base jiǎn
    redox 氧化还原 yǎng huà huán yuán
    4.8

    酸碱反应导论

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    4.8.A
    Identify species as Brønsted-Lowry acids, bases, and/or conjugate acid-base pairs, based on proton-transfer involving those species.

    • 4.8.A.1 By definition, a Brønsted-Lowry acid is a proton donor and a Brønsted-Lowry base is a proton acceptor.
    • 4.8.A.2 Only in aqueous solutions, water plays an important role in many acid-base reactions, as its molecular structure allows it to accept protons from and donate protons to dissolved species.
    • 4.8.A.3 When an acid or base ionizes in water, the conjugate acid-base pairs can be identified and their relative strengths compared.
      • Exclusion statement: Lewis acid-base concepts will not be assessed on the AP Exam. The emphasis in AP Chemistry is on reactions in aqueous solution.

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    一个(acid)给出一个质子($\text{H}^+$);一个(base)接受一个(布朗斯特-劳里)。它们反应形成水和一个盐:$\text{H}^+ + \text{OH}^- \rightarrow \text{H}_2\text{O}$。强酸和强碱完全解离;弱的只部分。

    布朗斯特-劳里:一个酸把一个质子给一个碱,形成两个共轭对
    布朗斯特-劳里:一个酸把一个质子给一个碱,形成两个共轭对
    探索

    Move along the pH scale

    pH measures how acidic or basic a solution is. Each step of 1 pH is a tenfold change in hydrogen-ion concentration; 7 is neutral, below is acidic, above is basic.

    4.9

    氧化还原反应

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    4.9.A
    Represent a balanced redox reaction equation using half-reactions.

    • 4.9.A.1 Balanced chemical equations for redox reactions can be constructed from half-reactions.

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    在一个氧化还原(redox)反应里,电子在物种之间转移。氧化(oxidation)是电子的失去(氧化数上升);还原(reduction)是获得(氧化数下降)。用氧化数(oxidation numbers)追踪变化,并记住每个氧化与一个还原配对——失去的电子等于获得的电子。

    氧化还原是电子转移:还原剂被氧化、氧化剂被还原
    氧化还原是电子转移:还原剂被氧化、氧化剂被还原

    Worked example. 求高锰酸盐 $\text{KMnO}_4$ 里锰的氧化数。钾是 $+1$ 而每个氧是 $-2$(四个,$-8$)。整个公式是中性的,所以 $(+1)+\text{Mn}+(-8)=0$,给出 $\text{Mn}=+7$ ——它的最大值,这就是为什么高锰酸盐是一个强的氧化剂(它只能获得电子)。

    探索

    Watch electrons transfer in a redox reaction

    In a redox reaction one species is oxidised (loses electrons) and another is reduced (gains them). Follow the electrons move from the metal to the non-metal.

    词汇表 训练
    英文 中文 拼音
    Oxidation 氧化 yǎng huà
    reduction 还原 huán yuán
    4.9

    考试技巧

    • 配平每个方程并以摩尔工作——转换 克→摩尔、跨过摩尔比,然后转换回。
    • 通过比较摩尔比找到限量反应物;它设定最大产物(理论产量)。
    • 在氧化还原里,记住 OIL RIG:氧化是电子的失去(Oxidation Is Loss)、还原是获得(Reduction Is Gain);每个氧化与一个还原配对。
    • 对于滴定用配平的比在等当点联系已知和未知。
    • 一个净离子方程式只显示变化的物种;略去旁观离子。
  • 5

    化学动力学

    讲义 词汇表
    5.1

    反应速率

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    5.1.A
    Explain the relationship between the rate of a chemical reaction and experimental parameters.

    • 5.1.A.1 The kinetics of a chemical reaction is defined as the rate at which an amount of reactants is converted to products per unit of time.
    • 5.1.A.2 The rates of change of reactant and product concentrations are determined by the stoichiometry in the balanced chemical equation.
    • 5.1.A.3 The rate of a reaction is influenced by reactant concentrations, temperature, surface area, catalysts, and other environmental factors.

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    麦克斯韦-玻尔兹曼分布

    动力学(kinetics)研究反应速率(reaction rate)——反应物变成产物有多快。速率是每单位时间浓度的变化,而它通常随着反应物被用尽而减小。速率随着更高的浓度、更高的温度、更大的表面积和一个催化剂而上升。

    相同体积里更多的粒子更频繁地碰撞,所以速率上升
    相同体积里更多的粒子更频繁地碰撞,所以速率上升
    A gas syringe: measuring gas volume over time gives reaction rate from the slope
    A gas syringe: measuring gas volume over time gives reaction rate from the slope
    探索

    Change conditions and watch the rate

    Reaction rate rises with temperature, concentration, and a catalyst — each gives more frequent or more successful collisions. Change each and watch the reaction speed up.

    词汇表 训练
    英文 中文 拼音
    Kinetics 动力学 dòng lì xué
    reaction rate 反应速率 fǎn yìng sù lǜ
    5.2

    速率定律导论

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    5.2.A
    Represent experimental data with a consistent rate law expression.

    • 5.2.A.1 Experimental methods can be used to monitor the amounts of reactants and/or products of a reaction over time and to determine the rate of the reaction.
    • 5.2.A.2 The rate law expresses the rate of a reaction as proportional to the concentration of each reactant raised to a power.
    • 5.2.A.3 The power of each reactant in the rate law is the order of the reaction with respect to that reactant. The sum of the powers of the reactant concentrations in the rate law is the overall order of the reaction.
    • 5.2.A.4 The proportionality constant in the rate law is called the rate constant. The value of this constant is temperature dependent and the units reflect the overall reaction order.
    • 5.2.A.5 Comparing initial rates of a reaction is a method to determine the order with respect to each reactant.

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    速率方程(rate law)把速率与反应物浓度关联:

    $$\text{rate}=k[\text{A}]^m[\text{B}]^n,$$
    其中 $k$速率常数(rate constant)而 $m,n$级数(orders)。级数实验地(experimentally)找到(不是从配平的系数),通过看每次改变一个浓度时速率如何变化。

    零级、一级和二级反应的速率对浓度
    零级、一级和二级反应的速率对浓度

    Worked example. 在实验里,把 $[\text{A}]$ 加倍使速率大四倍,而把 $[\text{B}]$ 加倍使速率不变。所以反应对 A 是二级($2^2=4$)而对 B 是零级,给出 $\text{rate}=k[\text{A}]^2$。总级数是 $2+0=2$。绝不从配平的系数读级数——只有实验给出它们。

    词汇表 训练
    英文 中文 拼音
    rate law 速率方程 sù lǜ fāng chéng
    rate constant 速率常数 sù lǜ cháng shù
    orders 级数 jí shù
    5.3

    浓度随时间的变化

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    5.3.A
    Identify the rate law expression of a chemical reaction using data that show how the concentrations of reaction species change over time.

    • 5.3.A.1 The order of a reaction can be inferred from a graph of concentration of reactant versus time.
    • 5.3.A.2 If a reaction is first order with respect to a reactant being monitored, a plot of the natural log (ln) of the reactant concentration as a function of time will be linear.
    • 5.3.A.3 If a reaction is second order with respect to a reactant being monitored, a plot of the reciprocal of the concentration of that reactant versus time will be linear.
    • 5.3.A.4 The slopes of the concentration versus time data for zeroth, first, and second order reactions can be used to determine the rate constant for the reaction.
      • Zeroth order:
      • Equation: $[\mathrm{A}]_t - [\mathrm{A}]_0 = -kt$
      • First order:
      • Equation: $\ln[\mathrm{A}]_t - \ln[\mathrm{A}]_0 = -kt$
      • Second order:
      • Equation: $1/[\mathrm{A}]_t - 1/[\mathrm{A}]_0 = kt$
    • 5.3.A.5 Half-life is a critical parameter for first order reactions because the half-life is constant and related to the rate constant for the reaction by the equation:
      • Equation: $t_{1/2} = 0.693/k.$
    • 5.3.A.6 Radioactive decay processes provide an important illustration of first order kinetics.

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    积分速率方程(integrated rate laws)描述浓度如何随时间下降并给出直线测试:

    一个一级反应有一个恒定的半衰期
    一个一级反应有一个恒定的半衰期
    • 零级: $[\text{A}]$$t$ 是线性的。
    • 一级: $\ln[\text{A}]$$t$ 是线性的;恒定的半衰期(half-life)。
    • 二级: $\dfrac{1}{[\text{A}]}$$t$ 是线性的。

    哪个图是直的告诉你级数并从它的斜率给出 $k$

    Worked example. 一个一级反应有速率常数 $k=0.030\ \text{s}^{-1}$。它的半衰期是

    $$t_{1/2}=\frac{0.693}{k}=\frac{0.693}{0.030}=23\ \text{s},$$
    而,因为是一级,那个半衰期无论剩多少反应物都保持相同——所以 $46\ \text{s}$($2$ 个半衰期)后剩四分之一。

    探索

    Track concentration as a reaction runs

    As reactants are used up the rate slows, so a concentration-time curve is steep at first and flattens out. Raising temperature or adding a catalyst steepens it.

    词汇表 训练
    英文 中文 拼音
    half-life 半衰期 bàn shuāi qī
    5.4

    基元反应

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    5.4.A
    Represent an elementary reaction as a rate law expression using stoichiometry.

    • 5.4.A.1 The rate law of an elementary reaction can be inferred from the stoichiometry of the particles participating in a collision.
    • 5.4.A.2 Elementary reactions involving the simultaneous collision of three or more particles are rare.

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    一个反应机理(reaction mechanism)是实际发生的基元反应(elementary steps)的序列。它们的分子数(molecularity)(一步中多少粒子碰撞)直接设定那一步的速率方程。在一步中制造而在较后一步中用尽的物种是中间体(intermediates)。

    词汇表 训练
    英文 中文 拼音
    reaction mechanism 反应机理 fǎn yìng jī lǐ
    elementary steps 基元反应 jī yuán fǎn yìng
    intermediates 中间体 zhōng jiān tǐ
    5.5

    碰撞模型

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    5.5.A
    Explain the relationship between the rate of an elementary reaction and the frequency, energy, and orientation of particle collisions.

    • 5.5.A.1 For an elementary reaction to successfully produce products, reactants must successfully collide to initiate bond-breaking and bond-making events.
    • 5.5.A.2 In most reactions, only a small fraction of the collisions leads to a reaction. Successful collisions have both sufficient energy to overcome the activation energy requirements and orientations that allow the bonds to rearrange in the required manner.
    • 5.5.A.3 The Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution curve describes the distribution of particle energies; this distribution can be used to gain a qualitative estimate of the fraction of collisions with sufficient energy to lead to a reaction, and also how that fraction depends on temperature.

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    碰撞理论

    碰撞理论(collision theory):分子必须以足够的能量(活化能(activation energy),$E_a$)和正确的取向(orientation)碰撞才能反应。更高的温度意味着更多分子超过 $E_a$,所以反应急剧加速。

    一次碰撞只在正确的取向和足够的能量下才反应
    一次碰撞只在正确的取向和足够的能量下才反应
    探索

    Which molecules clear the activation energy

    Only collisions with energy above the activation energy react. Heating shifts the speed distribution right, so a much larger fraction of molecules can react.

    词汇表 训练
    英文 中文 拼音
    Collision theory 碰撞理论 pèng zhuàng lǐ lùn
    activation energy 活化能 huó huà néng
    5.6

    反应能量图

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    5.6.A
    Represent the activation energy and overall energy change in an elementary reaction using a reaction energy profile.

    • 5.6.A.1 Elementary reactions typically involve the breaking of some bonds and the forming of new ones.
    • 5.6.A.2 The reaction coordinate is the axis along which the complex set of motions involved in rearranging reactants to form products can be plotted.
    • 5.6.A.3 The energy profile gives the energy along the reaction coordinate, which typically proceeds from reactants, through a transition state, to products. The energy difference between the reactants and the transition state is the activation energy for the forward reaction.
    • 5.6.A.4 The rate of an elementary reaction is temperature dependent because the proportion of particle collisions that are energetic enough to reach the transition state varies with temperature. The Arrhenius equation relates the temperature dependence of the rate of an elementary reaction to the activation energy needed by molecular collisions to reach the transition state.
      • Exclusion statement: Calculations involving the Arrhenius equation will not be assessed on the AP Exam.

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    反应能量曲线

    一个能量图(energy profile)沿反应路径画出能量。峰是过渡态(transition state);从反应物到峰的攀升是 $E_a$;反应物和产物能量之间的差是焓变 $\Delta H$(放热时向下)。

    放热反应结束时比反应物低;吸热结束时更高
    放热反应结束时比反应物低;吸热结束时更高
    探索

    Read activation energy off the profile

    An energy profile plots energy along the reaction. The hump is the activation energy; the drop from reactants to products is $\Delta H$. A catalyst lowers the hump.

    词汇表 训练
    英文 中文 拼音
    energy profile 能量图 néng liàng tú
    transition state 过渡态 guò dù tài
    5.7

    反应机理导论

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    5.7.A
    Identify the components of a reaction mechanism.

    • 5.7.A.1 A reaction mechanism consists of a series of elementary reactions, or steps, that occur in sequence. The components may include reactants, intermediates, products, and catalysts.
    • 5.7.A.2 The elementary steps when combined should align with the overall balanced equation of a chemical reaction.
    • 5.7.A.3 A reaction intermediate is produced by some elementary steps and consumed by others, such that it is present only while a reaction is occurring.
    • 5.7.A.4 Experimental detection of a reaction intermediate is a common way to build evidence in support of one reaction mechanism over an alternative mechanism.
      • Exclusion statement: Collection of data pertaining to detection of a reaction intermediate will not be assessed on the AP Exam.

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    在一个多步机理里,这些步骤必须加起来等于总的配平方程(中间体抵消)。每一步有它自己的能量山;最高的山是最慢的步骤。

    带更高势垒的慢步骤是决速的
    带更高势垒的慢步骤是决速的
    词汇表 训练
    英文 中文 拼音
    rate-determining step 决速步骤 jué sù bù zhòu
    5.8

    反应机理与速率定律

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    5.8.A
    Identify the rate law for a reaction from a mechanism in which the first step is rate limiting.

    • 5.8.A.1 For reaction mechanisms in which each elementary step is irreversible, or in which the first step is rate limiting, the rate law of the reaction is set by the molecularity of the slowest elementary step (i.e., the rate-limiting step).
      • Exclusion statement: Collection of data pertaining to detection of a reaction intermediate will not be assessed on the AP Exam.

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    决速步骤(rate-determining step)是最慢的步骤;它的分子数给出总速率方程。一个有效的机理必须 (1) 加起来等于总反应,并 (2) 预测实验观察到的速率方程。

    Worked example. 假设慢(决速)步骤是双分子碰撞 $\text{NO}_2+\text{NO}_2\rightarrow\text{NO}_3+\text{NO}$。它的分子数直接给出速率方程:$\text{rate}=k[\text{NO}_2]^2$。若实验显示恰好这个,提出的机理是一致的;若实验给出 $\text{rate}=k[\text{NO}_2]$,机理会是错的。

    5.9

    预平衡近似

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    5.9.A
    Identify the rate law for a reaction from a mechanism in which the first step is not rate limiting.

    • 5.9.A.1 If the first elementary reaction is not rate limiting, approximations (such as pre-equilibrium) must be made to determine a rate law expression.

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    若一个快步骤在慢步骤之前,一个中间体在慢步骤的速率方程里出现。用快前平衡(fast pre-equilibrium)以反应物重写那个中间体,所以最终的速率方程只包含可测量的物种。

    5.10

    多步反应能量图

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    5.10.A
    Represent the activation energy and overall energy change in a multistep reaction with a reaction energy profile.

    • 5.10.A.1 Knowledge of the energetics of each elementary reaction in a mechanism allows for the construction of an energy profile for a multistep reaction.

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    一个多步反应的能量图显示几个峰(每步一个),它们之间有谷(中间体)。最高的峰是决速的过渡态——它控制总速率。

    5.11

    催化作用

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    5.11.A
    Explain the relationship between the effect of a catalyst on a reaction and changes in the reaction mechanism.

    • 5.11.A.1 In order for a catalyst to increase the rate of a reaction, the addition of the catalyst must increase the number of effective collisions and/or provide a reaction path with a lower activation energy relative to the original reaction coordinate.
    • 5.11.A.2 In a reaction mechanism containing a catalyst, the net concentration of the catalyst is constant. However, the catalyst will frequently be consumed in the rate-determining step of the reaction, only to be regenerated in a subsequent step in the mechanism.
    • 5.11.A.3 Some catalysts accelerate a reaction by binding to the reactant(s). The reactants are either oriented more favorably or react with lower activation energy. There is often a new reaction intermediate in which the catalyst is bound to the reactant(s). Many enzymes function in this manner.
    • 5.11.A.4 Some catalysts involve covalent bonding between the catalyst and the reactant(s). An example is acid-base catalysis, in which a reactant or intermediate either gains or loses a proton. This introduces a new reaction intermediate and new elementary reactions involving that intermediate.
    • 5.11.A.5 In surface catalysis, a reactant or intermediate binds to, or forms a covalent bond with, the surface. This introduces elementary reactions involving these new bound reaction intermediate(s).

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    一个催化剂(catalyst)通过提供一条带更低活化能的新途径来加速一个反应,而不被消耗。它不改变 $\Delta H$ 或平衡位置——只改变平衡被达到的速度。在一个能量图上,一个催化剂降低峰。

    一个催化剂给出一条带更低活化能的路线;焓变不变
    一个催化剂给出一条带更低活化能的路线;焓变不变
    词汇表 训练
    英文 中文 拼音
    catalyst 催化剂 cuī huà jì
    5.11

    考试技巧

    • 速率随着浓度、温度、表面积和一个催化剂而上升——用碰撞理论解释每一个(更多、或更有能量的、成功的碰撞)。
    • 温度主要通过使更多粒子在活化能之上起作用,不只是更多碰撞。
    • 反应级数来自实验,不是配平的系数——看每次改变一个浓度时速率如何变化。
    • 在一个能量图上山高是活化能而反应物-产物间隙是 $\Delta H$
    • 一个催化剂降低活化能(一条新途径)但使 $\Delta H$ 和平衡位置不变。
  • 6

    热化学

    讲义 词汇表
    6.1

    吸热与放热过程

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    6.1.A
    Explain the relationship between experimental observations and energy changes associated with a chemical or physical transformation.

    • 6.1.A.1 Temperature changes in a system indicate energy changes.
    • 6.1.A.2 Energy changes in a system can be described as endothermic and exothermic processes such as the heating or cooling of a substance, phase changes, or chemical transformations.
    • 6.1.A.3 When a chemical reaction occurs, the energy of the system either decreases (exothermic reaction), increases (endothermic reaction), or remains the same. For exothermic reactions, the energy lost by the reacting species (system) is gained by the surroundings, as heat transfer from or work done by the system. Likewise, for endothermic reactions, the system gains energy from the surroundings by heat transfer to or work done on the system.
    • 6.1.A.4 The formation of a solution may be an exothermic or endothermic process, depending on the relative strengths of intermolecular/interparticle interactions before and after the dissolution process.

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    热化学(thermochemistry)追踪反应里的能量。一个过程是放热(exothermic),若它向环境释放能量(感觉热,$\Delta H<0$),而吸热(endothermic),若它吸收能量(感觉冷,$\Delta H>0$)。破坏键花费能量;形成键释放它——净决定符号。

    一个放热反应使环境变暖;一个吸热的使它们变冷
    一个放热反应使环境变暖;一个吸热的使它们变冷
    探索

    Compare endothermic and exothermic profiles

    An exothermic reaction releases energy (products lower than reactants, $\Delta H<0$); an endothermic one absorbs it. The hump is the activation energy.

    词汇表 训练
    英文 中文 拼音
    Thermochemistry 热化学 rè huà xué
    exothermic 放热 fàng rè
    endothermic 吸热 xī rè
    6.2

    能量图

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    6.2.A
    Represent a chemical or physical transformation with an energy diagram.

    • 6.2.A.1 A physical or chemical process can be described with an energy diagram that shows the endothermic or exothermic nature of that process.

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    一个能量图画出从反应物到产物的能量。反应物在产物之上意味着放热;之下意味着吸热。它们之间的竖直间隙是焓变 $\Delta H$

    能量图:放热产物坐在反应物之下,吸热在之上
    能量图:放热产物坐在反应物之下,吸热在之上
    6.3

    热传递与热平衡

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    6.3.A
    Explain the relationship between the transfer of thermal energy and molecular collisions.

    • 6.3.A.1 The particles in a warmer body have a greater average kinetic energy than those in a cooler body.
    • 6.3.A.2 Collisions between particles in thermal contact can result in the transfer of energy. This process is called "heat transfer," "heat exchange," or "transfer of energy as heat."
    • 6.3.A.3 Eventually, thermal equilibrium is reached as the particles continue to collide. At thermal equilibrium, the average kinetic energy of both bodies is the same, and hence, their temperatures are the same.

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    热量(heat)从热流向冷,直到物体达到热平衡(thermal equilibrium)(相等的温度)。能量守恒:热物体失去的热等于冷物体获得的热。

    词汇表 训练
    英文 中文 拼音
    Heat 热量 rè liàng
    thermal equilibrium 热平衡 rè píng héng
    6.4

    热容与量热法

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    6.4.A
    Calculate the heat $q$ absorbed or released by a system undergoing heating/cooling based on the amount of the substance, the heat capacity, and the change in temperature.

    • 6.4.A.1 The heating of a cool body by a warmer body is an important form of energy transfer between two systems. The amount of heat transferred between two bodies may be quantified by the heat transfer equation:

      • Equation: $q = mc\Delta T$.

      Calorimetry experiments are used to measure the transfer of heat.

    • 6.4.A.2 The first law of thermodynamics states that energy is conserved in chemical and physical processes.

    • 6.4.A.3 The transfer of a given amount of thermal energy will not produce the same temperature change in equal masses of matter with differing specific heat capacities.

    • 6.4.A.4 Heating a system increases the energy of the system, while cooling a system decreases the energy of the system.

    • 6.4.A.5 The specific heat capacity of a substance and the molar heat capacity are both used in energy calculations.

    • 6.4.A.6 Chemical systems change their energy through three main processes: heating/cooling, phase transitions, and chemical reactions.

    • 6.4.A.7 In calorimetry experiments involving dissolution, temperature changes of the mixture within the calorimeter can be used to determine the direction of energy flow. If the temperature of the mixture increases, thermal energy is released by the dissolution process (exothermic). If the temperature of the mixture decreases, thermal energy is absorbed by the dissolution process (endothermic).

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    改变一个物质温度的热是

    $$q=mc\,\Delta T,$$
    其中 $c$比热容(specific heat)(每克每度的能量)。量热法(calorimetry)通过追踪周围水的温度变化来测量一个反应的热:水获得的热等于反应释放的热。

    量热法:测量一个已知质量溶液的温度变化
    量热法:测量一个已知质量溶液的温度变化

    Worked example. 一个咖啡杯量热计里的一个反应使 $100\ \text{g}$ 的水变暖 $8.0\,{}^{\circ}\text{C}$($c=4.18\ \text{J/(g}\,{}^{\circ}\text{C)}$)。水吸收的热是

    $$q=mc\,\Delta T=100\times4.18\times8.0=3.3\times10^{3}\ \text{J}.$$
    由能量守恒反应释放了这 $3.3\ \text{kJ}$,所以它是放热的($q_{\text{rxn}}=-3.3\ \text{kJ}$)。

    探索

    Heat different materials

    $Q=mc\Delta T$: a high specific heat (like water's) means a lot of energy for a small temperature rise. Compare materials for the same heat input.

    词汇表 训练
    英文 中文 拼音
    specific heat 比热容 bǐ rè róng
    Calorimetry 量热法 liàng rè fǎ
    6.5

    相变的能量

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    6.5.A
    Explain changes in the heat $q$ absorbed or released by a system undergoing a phase transition based on the amount of the substance in moles and the molar enthalpy of the phase transition.

    • 6.5.A.1 Energy must be transferred to a system to cause a substance to melt (or boil). The energy of the system therefore increases as the system undergoes a solid-to-liquid (or liquid-to-gas) phase transition. Likewise, a system releases energy when it freezes (or condenses). The energy of the system decreases as the system undergoes a liquid-to-solid (or gas-to-liquid) phase transition. The temperature of a pure substance remains constant during a phase change.
    • 6.5.A.2 The energy absorbed during a phase change is equal to the energy released during a complementary phase change in the opposite direction. For example, the molar enthalpy of condensation of a substance is equal to the negative of its molar enthalpy of vaporization. Similarly, the molar enthalpy of fusion can be used to calculate the energy absorbed when melting a substance and the energy released when freezing a substance.

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    在一个相变(phase change)(熔化、沸腾)期间温度保持恒定,而热进入破坏分子间作用力,不是提高动能。所需的能量是 $q=n\,\Delta H_{\text{fus}}$(熔化)或 $q=n\,\Delta H_{\text{vap}}$(沸腾)——一条加热曲线上的平坦阶梯。

    Steam from boiling water: phase changes absorb or release energy at constant temperature
    Steam from boiling water: phase changes absorb or release energy at constant temperature
    探索

    Heat through a phase change

    During a phase change the temperature holds flat while energy breaks bonds — the latent heat. Watch the plateaus at melting and boiling.

    词汇表 训练
    英文 中文 拼音
    phase change 相变 xiāng biàn
    6.6

    反应焓导论

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    6.6.A
    Calculate the heat $q$ absorbed or released by a system undergoing a chemical reaction in relationship to the amount of the reacting substance in moles and the molar enthalpy of reaction.

    • 6.6.A.1 The enthalpy change of a reaction gives the amount of heat energy released (for negative values) or absorbed (for positive values) by a chemical reaction at constant pressure.
    • 6.6.A.2 When the products of a reaction are at a different temperature than their surroundings, they exchange energy with the surroundings to reach thermal equilibrium. Thermal energy is transferred to the surroundings as the reactants convert to products in an exothermic reaction. Thermal energy is transferred from the surroundings as the reactants convert to products in an endothermic reaction.
    • 6.6.A.3 The chemical potential energy of the products of a reaction is different from that of the reactants because of the breaking and forming of bonds. The energy difference results in a change in the kinetic energy of the particles, which manifests as a temperature change.
      • Exclusion Statement: The technical distinctions between enthalpy and internal energy will not be assessed on the AP Exam. Most reactions studied at the AP level are carried out at constant pressure, where the enthalpy change of the process is equal to the heat (and by extension, the energy) of reaction.

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    反应焓(enthalpy of reaction)$\Delta H_{\text{rxn}}$ 是在恒定压力下释放或吸收的热。因为焓是一个状态函数(state function),$\Delta H$ 只取决于初始和最终状态,不是所走的路径——使接下来三个方法起作用的关键。

    词汇表 训练
    英文 中文 拼音
    enthalpy of reaction 反应焓 fǎn yìng hán
    state function 状态函数 zhuàng tài hán shù
    6.7

    键焓

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    6.7.A
    Calculate the enthalpy change of a reaction based on the average bond energies of bonds broken and formed in the reaction.

    • 6.7.A.1 During a chemical reaction, bonds are broken and/or formed, and these events change the potential energy of the system.
    • 6.7.A.2 The average energy required to break all of the bonds in the reactant molecules can be estimated by adding up the average bond energies of all the bonds in the reactant molecules. Likewise, the average energy released in forming the bonds in the product molecules can be estimated. If the energy released is greater than the energy required, the reaction is exothermic. If the energy required is greater than the energy released, the reaction is endothermic.

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    估计 $\Delta H$ 的一种方式:把破坏所有反应物键的能量相加,然后减去形成产物键释放的能量:

    $$\Delta H \approx \sum (\text{bonds broken}) - \sum (\text{bonds formed}).$$
    这是一个近似,因为键焓是平均值。

    破坏键吸入能量;制造键释放它
    破坏键吸入能量;制造键释放它

    Worked example. 用键焓 H–H $=436$、Cl–Cl $=242$、H–Cl $=431\ \text{kJ/mol}$ 估计 $\text{H}_2+\text{Cl}_2\rightarrow2\text{HCl}$$\Delta H$。破坏两个反应物键($436+242=678$)并形成两个 H–Cl 键($2\times431=862$):

    $$\Delta H\approx 678-862=-184\ \text{kJ},$$
    放热,因为形成的强 H–Cl 键释放的多于反应物键花费的。

    6.8

    生成焓

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    6.8.A
    Calculate the enthalpy change for a chemical or physical process based on the standard enthalpies of formation.

    • 6.8.A.1 Tables of standard enthalpies of formation can be used to calculate the standard enthalpies of reactions.
      • Equation: $\Delta H^{\circ}_{reaction} = \Sigma \Delta H^{\circ}_{f\ products} - \Sigma \Delta H^{\circ}_{f\ reactants}$

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    标准生成焓(standard enthalpy of formation)$\Delta H_f^\circ$ 是从一个化合物的元素制造一摩尔它的焓(对一个处于它标准状态的元素为零)。那么

    $$\Delta H_{\text{rxn}}^\circ = \sum \Delta H_f^\circ(\text{products}) - \sum \Delta H_f^\circ(\text{reactants}).$$

    生成从一个化合物的元素制造它;燃烧在氧里烧它
    生成从一个化合物的元素制造它;燃烧在氧里烧它

    Worked example. 给定 $\Delta H_f^\circ$:CH$_4=-75$、CO$_2=-394$、H$_2$O$=-286\ \text{kJ/mol}$(O$_2=0$),求燃烧甲烷 $\text{CH}_4+2\text{O}_2\rightarrow\text{CO}_2+2\text{H}_2\text{O}$$\Delta H_{\text{rxn}}^\circ$。产物减反应物:

    $$\Delta H_{\text{rxn}}^\circ=[-394+2(-286)]-[-75+0]=-966+75=-891\ \text{kJ},$$
    一个大的释放,正如对一次燃烧所期望的。

    词汇表 训练
    英文 中文 拼音
    standard enthalpy of formation 生成焓 shēng chéng hán
    6.9

    盖斯定律

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    6.9.A
    Represent a chemical or physical process as a sequence of steps.

    • 6.9.A.1 Many processes can be broken down into a series of steps. Each step in the series has its own energy change.

    6.9.B
    Explain the relationship between the enthalpy of a chemical or physical process and the sum of the enthalpies of the individual steps.

    • 6.9.B.1 Because total energy is conserved (first law of thermodynamics), and each individual reaction in a sequence transfers thermal energy to or from the surroundings, the net thermal energy transferred in the sequence will be equal to the sum of the thermal energy transfers in each of the steps. These thermal energy transfers are the result of potential energy changes among the species in the reaction sequence; thus, at constant pressure, the enthalpy change of the overall process is equal to the sum of the enthalpy changes of the individual steps.
    • 6.9.B.2 The following are essential principles of Hess's law:
      • i. When a reaction is reversed, the enthalpy change stays constant in magnitude but becomes reversed in mathematical sign.
      • ii. When a reaction is multiplied by a factor $c$, the enthalpy change is multiplied by the same factor $c$.
      • iii. When two (or more) reactions are added to obtain an overall reaction, the individual enthalpy changes of each reaction are added to obtain the net enthalpy change of the overall reaction.
      • Exclusion Statement: The concept of state functions will not be assessed on the AP Exam.

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    盖斯定律:路径无关

    盖斯定律(Hess's law):若一个反应是几个步骤的和,它的 $\Delta H$ 是这些步骤的 $\Delta H$ 值的和。反转一步并翻转符号;缩放一步并缩放它的 $\Delta H$。这让你能通过组合已知反应求一个难以测量的 $\Delta H$ ——一个频繁的考试计算。

    盖斯定律:直接和间接路线给出相同的总焓变
    盖斯定律:直接和间接路线给出相同的总焓变
    词汇表 训练
    英文 中文 拼音
    Hess's law 盖斯定律 gài sī dìng lǜ
    6.9

    考试技巧

    • 一个放热反应有 $\Delta H<0$(感觉热);吸热有 $\Delta H>0$ ——总是给 $\Delta H$ 一个符号和单位。
    • 在量热法里用 $q=mc\,\Delta T$,以水/溶液的质量;反应释放水获得的。
    • 键焓:$\Delta H\approx\sum(\text{bonds broken})-\sum(\text{bonds made})$ ——破坏是吸热的、制造是放热的(经典的符号陷阱)。
    • 盖斯定律:总 $\Delta H$ 是这些步骤的和——反转一步并翻转符号,缩放一步并缩放 $\Delta H$
    • 在一个相变期间温度保持恒定,而能量进入粒子之间的作用力。
  • 7

    化学平衡

    讲义 词汇表
    7.1

    化学平衡导论

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    7.1.A
    Explain the relationship between the occurrence of a reversible chemical or physical process, and the establishment of equilibrium, to experimental observations.

    • 7.1.A.1 Many observable processes are reversible. Examples include evaporation and condensation of water, absorption and desorption of a gas, or dissolution and precipitation of a salt. Some important reversible chemical processes include the transfer of protons in acid-base reactions and the transfer of electrons in redox reactions.
    • 7.1.A.2 When equilibrium is reached, no observable changes occur in the system. Reactants and products are simultaneously present, and the concentrations or partial pressures of all species remain constant.
    • 7.1.A.3 The equilibrium state is dynamic. The forward and reverse processes continue to occur at equal rates, resulting in no net observable change.
    • 7.1.A.4 Graphs of concentration, partial pressure, or rate of reaction versus time for simple chemical reactions can be used to understand the establishment of chemical equilibrium.

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    动态平衡

    一个可逆反应(reversible reaction)双向进行。化学平衡(chemical equilibrium)在正向和逆向速率变得相等时达到,所以浓度停止变化。平衡是动态(dynamic)的——两个反应都继续,但以匹配的速率,所以什么都看似不变。

    动态平衡:正向和逆向速率变得相等
    动态平衡:正向和逆向速率变得相等

    上面的速率图解释为什么浓度稳定;接下来这个图显示浓度做什么——反应物下降而产物上升,直到一旦速率匹配,两者都保持恒定(它们不必相等)。

    反应物和产物浓度变化,然后一旦达到平衡就保持恒定
    反应物和产物浓度变化,然后一旦达到平衡就保持恒定
    词汇表 训练
    英文 中文 拼音
    reversible reaction 可逆反应 kě nì fǎn yìng
    Chemical equilibrium 化学平衡 huà xué píng héng
    7.2

    可逆反应的方向

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    7.2.A
    Explain the relationship between the direction in which a reversible reaction proceeds and the relative rates of the forward and reverse reactions.

    • 7.2.A.1 If the rate of the forward reaction is greater than the reverse reaction, then there is a net conversion of reactants to products. If the rate of the reverse reaction is greater than that of the forward reaction, then there is a net conversion of products to reactants. An equilibrium state is reached when these rates are equal.

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    在平衡处反应物和产物的量是固定的但通常相等。混合物偏向产物还是反应物取决于反应;你把当前状态与平衡条件比较以预测它向哪个方向移动。

    7.3

    反应商与平衡常数

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    7.3.A
    Represent the reaction quotient $Q_c$ or $Q_p$, for a reversible reaction, and the corresponding equilibrium expressions $K_c = Q_c$ or $K_p = Q_p$.

    • 7.3.A.1 The reaction quotient $Q_c$ describes the relative concentrations of reaction species at any time. For gas phase reactions, the reaction quotient may instead be written in terms of partial pressures as $Q_p$. The reaction quotient tends toward the equilibrium constant such that at equilibrium $K_c = Q_c$ and $K_p = Q_p$. As examples, for the reaction

      $$a\,\mathrm{A} + b\,\mathrm{B} \rightleftarrows c\,\mathrm{C} + d\,\mathrm{D}$$
      the law of mass action indicates that the equilibrium expression for $(K_c, Q_c)$ is

      • Equation: $K_c = \dfrac{[\mathrm{C}]^c [\mathrm{D}]^d}{[\mathrm{A}]^a [\mathrm{B}]^b}$

      and that for $(K_p, Q_p)$ is

      • Equation: $K_p = \dfrac{(P_\mathrm{C})^c (P_\mathrm{D})^d}{(P_\mathrm{A})^a (P_\mathrm{B})^b}$
      • Exclusion statement: Conversion between $K_c$ and $K_p$ will not be assessed on the AP Exam. Students should be aware of the conceptual differences and pay attention to whether $K_c$ or $K_p$ is used in an exam question.
      • Exclusion statement: Equilibrium calculations on systems where a dissolved species is in equilibrium with that species in the gas phase will not be assessed on the AP Exam.
    • 7.3.A.2 The reaction quotient does not include substances whose concentrations (or partial pressures) are independent of the amount, such as for solids and pure liquids.

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    反应商(reaction quotient)$Q$ 有与平衡表达式相同的形式但用当前浓度:

    $$Q=\frac{[\text{products}]}{[\text{reactants}]}\ \text{(each raised to its coefficient)}.$$
    在平衡处 $Q$ 等于平衡常数(equilibrium constant)$K$。比较它们预测方向:$Q 正向移动(朝产物);$Q>K$ 逆向移动;$Q=K$ 意味着已经在平衡。

    词汇表 训练
    英文 中文 拼音
    reaction quotient 反应商 fǎn yìng shāng
    equilibrium constant 平衡常数 píng héng cháng shù
    7.4

    平衡常数的计算

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    7.4.A
    Calculate $K_c$ or $K_p$ based on experimental observations of concentrations or pressures at equilibrium.

    • 7.4.A.1 Equilibrium constants can be determined from experimental measurements of the concentrations or partial pressures of the reactants and products at equilibrium.

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    从配平的方程写 $K$(纯固体和液体被略去)。从平衡浓度(或对 $K_p$ 的分压),代入并计算。$K_c$ 用摩尔浓度;$K_p$ 用压力。

    Worked example. 对于 $\text{N}_2\text{O}_4\rightleftharpoons2\text{NO}_2$,平衡浓度是 $[\text{N}_2\text{O}_4]=0.20\ \text{M}$$[\text{NO}_2]=0.10\ \text{M}$。那么

    $$K_c=\frac{[\text{NO}_2]^2}{[\text{N}_2\text{O}_4]}=\frac{(0.10)^2}{0.20}=0.050.$$
    NO$_2$ 的系数 $2$ 变成幂;N$_2$O$_4$(系数 $1$)只是一次幂。

    7.5

    平衡常数的大小

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    7.5.A
    Explain the relationship between very large or very small values of $K$ and the relative concentrations of chemical species at equilibrium.

    • 7.5.A.1 Some equilibrium reactions have very large $K$ values and proceed essentially to completion. Others have very small $K$ values and barely proceed at all.

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    • $K\gg 1$:产物强烈地被偏爱(反应几乎完全)。
    • $K\ll 1$:反应物被偏爱(很少反应)。
    • $K\approx 1$:两者都有显著的量。

    $K$ 的大小告诉你平衡"坐"在哪里。

    7.6

    平衡常数的性质

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    7.6.A
    Represent a multistep process with an overall equilibrium expression, using the constituent $K$ expressions for each individual reaction.

    • 7.6.A.1 When a reaction is reversed, $K$ is inverted.
    • 7.6.A.2 When the stoichiometric coefficients of a reaction are multiplied by a factor $c$, $K$ is raised to the power $c$.
    • 7.6.A.3 When reactions are added together, the $K$ of the resulting overall reaction is the product of the $K$'s for the reactions that were summed.
    • 7.6.A.4 Since the expressions for $K$ and $Q$ have identical mathematical forms, all valid algebraic manipulations of $K$ also apply to $Q$.

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    $K$ 以可预测的方式变化:反转一个反应反转 $K$($1/K$);把系数乘以 $n$$K$ 提高到 $n$ 次幂;把反应相加相乘它们的 $K$ 值。只有温度改变 $K$ 本身的值。

    7.7

    平衡浓度的计算

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    7.7.A
    Identify the concentrations or partial pressures of chemical species at equilibrium based on the initial conditions and the equilibrium constant.

    • 7.7.A.1 The concentrations or partial pressures of species at equilibrium can be predicted given the balanced reaction, initial concentrations, and the appropriate $K$.
    • 7.7.A.2 When $Q < K$, the reaction will proceed with a net consumption of reactants and generation of products. When $Q > K$, the reaction will proceed with a net consumption of products and generation of reactants. When $Q = K$, the system is at dynamic equilibrium; both forward and reverse reactions proceed at the same rate, and the proportion of reactants and products remains constant.

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    用一张 ICE 表(Initial, Change, Equilibrium):填入起始量、用摩尔比以 $x$ 表示变化,然后代入 $K$ 表达式并解 $x$。当 $K$ 小时,近似"$x$ 可忽略"常常简化代数。

    Worked example. 对于 $\text{H}_2+\text{I}_2\rightleftharpoons2\text{HI}$,$K_c=50$,以各 $0.100\ \text{M}$ 的 H$_2$ 和 I$_2$ 开始。ICE 表给出平衡 $[\text{H}_2]=[\text{I}_2]=0.100-x$$[\text{HI}]=2x$。代入:

    $$K_c=\frac{(2x)^2}{(0.100-x)^2}=50\;\Rightarrow\;\frac{2x}{0.100-x}=\sqrt{50}=7.07\;\Rightarrow\;x=0.078,$$
    所以 $[\text{HI}]=2x=0.156\ \text{M}$。对两侧取平方根在这里起作用,因为表达式是一个完全平方。

    7.8

    平衡的表示方法

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    7.8.A
    Represent a system undergoing a reversible reaction with a particulate model.

    • 7.8.A.1 Particulate representations can be used to describe the relative numbers of reactant and product particles present prior to and at equilibrium, and the value of the equilibrium constant.

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    一幅平衡处的微粒图片显示反应物和产物粒子的一个固定混合。浓度对时间的图一旦达到平衡就趋平(从不达到零)——两条曲线在同一时刻变平。

    7.9

    勒夏特列原理导论

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    7.9.A
    Identify the response of a system at equilibrium to an external stress, using Le Châtelier's principle.

    • 7.9.A.1 Le Châtelier's principle can be used to predict the response of a system to stresses such as addition or removal of a chemical species, change in temperature, change in volume/pressure of a gas-phase system, or dilution of a reaction system.
    • 7.9.A.2 Le Châtelier's principle can be used to predict the effect that a stress will have on experimentally measurable properties such as pH, temperature, and color of a solution.

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    勒夏特列原理

    勒沙特列原理(Le Chatelier's principle):若你扰动一个平衡的系统,它移动以部分抵消这个变化。加一个反应物向前移动;移除产物向前移动;增加压力(通过减少体积)朝气体摩尔更少的一侧移动;提高温度朝吸热方向移动。

    勒沙特列原理:平衡移动以对抗所做的变化
    勒沙特列原理:平衡移动以对抗所做的变化
    An ammonia plant: industrial equilibria like Haber's process are driven by pressure, temperature and catalysts
    An ammonia plant: industrial equilibria like Haber's process are driven by pressure, temperature and catalysts
    探索

    Disturb an equilibrium

    Le Chatelier's principle: an equilibrium shifts to oppose a change. Add reactant, change pressure or temperature and watch the position of equilibrium move.

    词汇表 训练
    英文 中文 拼音
    Le Chatelier's principle 勒沙特列原理 lēi shā tè liè yuán lǐ
    7.10

    反应商与勒夏特列原理

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    7.10.A
    Explain the relationships between $Q$, $K$, and the direction in which a reversible reaction will proceed to reach equilibrium.

    • 7.10.A.1 A disturbance to a system at equilibrium causes $Q$ to differ from $K$, thereby taking the system out of equilibrium. The system responds by bringing $Q$ back into agreement with $K$, thereby establishing a new equilibrium state.
    • 7.10.A.2 Some stresses, such as changes in concentration, cause a change in $Q$ only. A change in temperature causes a change in $K$. In either case, the concentrations or partial pressures of species redistribute to bring $Q$ and $K$ back into equality.

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    你能用 $Q$$K$ 论证每个勒沙特列移动:一个扰动改变 $Q$,而系统反应以把 $Q$ 带回 $K$。这个定量的视角支持定性的规则,并且是考试上更完整的答案。

    探索

    Compare Q with K

    If the reaction quotient $Q the forward reaction is favoured; $Q>K$ favours the reverse. Perturb the system and watch it move back toward $Q=K$.

    7.11 7.12

    溶解平衡导论

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    7.11.A
    Calculate the solubility of a salt based on the value of $K_{sp}$ for the salt.

    • 7.11.A.1 The dissolution of a salt is a reversible process whose extent can be described by $K_{sp}$, the solubility-product constant.
    • 7.11.A.2 The solubility of a substance can be calculated from the $K_{sp}$ for the dissolution process. This relationship can also be used to predict the relative solubility of different substances.
    • 7.11.A.3 The solubility rules (see 4.7.A.5) can be quantitatively related to $K_{sp}$, in which $K_{sp}$ values $>1$ correspond to soluble salts.
    • 7.11.A.4 The molar solubility of one or more species in a saturated solution can be used to calculate the $K_{sp}$ of a substance.
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    7.12.A
    Identify the solubility of a salt, and/or the value of $K_{sp}$ for the salt, based on the concentration of a common ion already present in solution.

    • 7.12.A.1 The solubility of a salt is reduced when it is dissolved into a solution that already contains one of the ions present in the salt. The impact of this "common-ion effect" on solubility can be understood qualitatively using Le Châtelier's principle or calculated from the $K_{sp}$ for the dissolution process.

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    对于一个微溶的盐,溶度积(solubility product)$K_{sp}$ 是它溶解的平衡常数:

    $$\text{M}_a\text{X}_b(s)\rightleftharpoons a\,\text{M}^{b+}+b\,\text{X}^{a-},\qquad K_{sp}=[\text{M}^{b+}]^a[\text{X}^{a-}]^b.$$
    一个更小的 $K_{sp}$ 意味着更难溶。同离子效应(common-ion effect)——加一个已经在盐里的离子——把平衡推回并降低溶解度。

    Worked example. 氯化银有 $K_{sp}=1.8\times10^{-10}$。若它的摩尔溶解度是 $s$,那么 $[\text{Ag}^+]=[\text{Cl}^-]=s$,所以 $K_{sp}=s^2$

    $$s=\sqrt{1.8\times10^{-10}}=1.3\times10^{-5}\ \text{M}.$$
    加 NaCl(一个同离子)会提高 $[\text{Cl}^-]$,迫使 $s$ 下降——远少的 AgCl 会溶解。

    词汇表 训练
    英文 中文 拼音
    solubility product 溶度积 róng dù jī
    7.11 7.12

    考试技巧

    • 在平衡处正向和逆向速率相等,但通常不相等。
    • 把纯固体和液体留在 $K$ 表达式之外;一个大的 $K$ 偏爱产物,一个小的 $K$ 偏爱反应物。
    • 应用勒沙特列:加反应物 → 向前移动;提高压力 → 朝气体摩尔更少移动;提高温度 → 朝吸热方向移动。
    • 一个催化剂不移动平衡的位置——它只加速逼近。
    • 对平衡浓度用一张 ICE 表,当 $K$ 小时用小-$x$ 近似。
  • 8

    酸与碱

    讲义 词汇表
    8.1

    酸碱导论

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    8.1.A
    Calculate the values of $\mathrm{pH}$ and $\mathrm{pOH}$, based on $K_w$ and the concentration of all species present in a neutral solution of water.

    • 8.1.A.1 The concentrations of hydronium ion and hydroxide ion are often reported as $\mathrm{pH}$ and $\mathrm{pOH}$, respectively.
      • Equation: $\mathrm{pH} = -\log[\mathrm{H_3O^+}]$
      • Equation: $\mathrm{pOH} = -\log[\mathrm{OH^-}]$
      • The terms "hydrogen ion" and "hydronium ion" and the symbols $\mathrm{H^+}(aq)$ and $\mathrm{H_3O^+}(aq)$ are often used interchangeably for the aqueous ion of hydrogen. Hydronium ion and $\mathrm{H_3O^+}(aq)$ are preferred, but $\mathrm{H^+}(aq)$ is also accepted on the AP Exam.
    • 8.1.A.2 Water autoionizes with an equilibrium constant $K_w$.
      • Equation: $K_w = [\mathrm{H_3O^+}][\mathrm{OH^-}] = 1.0 \times 10^{-14}$ at 25°C
    • 8.1.A.3 In pure water, $\mathrm{pH} = \mathrm{pOH}$ is called a neutral solution. At 25°C, $\mathrm{p}K_w = 14.0$ and thus $\mathrm{pH} = \mathrm{pOH} = 7.0$.
      • Equation: $\mathrm{p}K_w = 14 = \mathrm{pH} + \mathrm{pOH}$ at 25°C
    • 8.1.A.4 The value of $K_w$ is temperature dependent, so the pH of pure, neutral water will deviate from 7.0 at temperatures other than 25°C.

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    布朗斯特-劳里(Brønsted–Lowry)定义,一个(acid)是一个质子($\text{H}^+$)给体而一个(base)是一个质子受体。当一个酸给出一个质子时它变成它的共轭碱(conjugate base);一个碱获得一个质子变成它的共轭酸(conjugate acid)。水是两性(amphoteric)的——它能作为任一个。

    一个强酸完全解离;一个弱酸只部分解离
    一个强酸完全解离;一个弱酸只部分解离
    pH test strips: acid–base strength and concentration set the pH you measure
    pH test strips: acid–base strength and concentration set the pH you measure
    词汇表 训练
    英文 中文 拼音
    acid suān
    base jiǎn
    conjugate base 共轭碱 gòng è jiǎn
    conjugate acid 共轭酸 gòng è suān
    weak acid 弱酸 ruò suān
    8.1

    酸碱导论

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    8.1.A
    Calculate the values of $\mathrm{pH}$ and $\mathrm{pOH}$, based on $K_w$ and the concentration of all species present in a neutral solution of water.

    • 8.1.A.1 The concentrations of hydronium ion and hydroxide ion are often reported as $\mathrm{pH}$ and $\mathrm{pOH}$, respectively.
      • Equation: $\mathrm{pH} = -\log[\mathrm{H_3O^+}]$
      • Equation: $\mathrm{pOH} = -\log[\mathrm{OH^-}]$
      • The terms "hydrogen ion" and "hydronium ion" and the symbols $\mathrm{H^+}(aq)$ and $\mathrm{H_3O^+}(aq)$ are often used interchangeably for the aqueous ion of hydrogen. Hydronium ion and $\mathrm{H_3O^+}(aq)$ are preferred, but $\mathrm{H^+}(aq)$ is also accepted on the AP Exam.
    • 8.1.A.2 Water autoionizes with an equilibrium constant $K_w$.
      • Equation: $K_w = [\mathrm{H_3O^+}][\mathrm{OH^-}] = 1.0 \times 10^{-14}$ at 25°C
    • 8.1.A.3 In pure water, $\mathrm{pH} = \mathrm{pOH}$ is called a neutral solution. At 25°C, $\mathrm{p}K_w = 14.0$ and thus $\mathrm{pH} = \mathrm{pOH} = 7.0$.
      • Equation: $\mathrm{p}K_w = 14 = \mathrm{pH} + \mathrm{pOH}$ at 25°C
    • 8.1.A.4 The value of $K_w$ is temperature dependent, so the pH of pure, neutral water will deviate from 7.0 at temperatures other than 25°C.

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    即使纯水也导一点点电流,因为水分子彼此反应,这个反应叫做自偶电离(autoionization):

    $$2\text{H}_2\text{O} \rightleftharpoons \text{H}_3\text{O}^+ + \text{OH}^-.$$
    一个水分子把一个质子传给另一个,生成一个水合氢离子(hydronium ion)($\text{H}_3\text{O}^+$,我们松散地写作 $\text{H}^+$ 的那个离子)和一个氢氧根离子。这个平衡有它自己的常数,叫水的离子积(ion-product constant of water):
    $$K_w = [\text{H}_3\text{O}^+][\text{OH}^-] = 1.0\times10^{-14}$$
    在 25 °C。定义 $\text{pOH}=-\log[\text{OH}^-]$,对 $K_w$ 表达式两边取 $-\log$,就得到本主题其余部分所依赖的规则:
    $$\text{pH} + \text{pOH} = \text{p}K_w = 14.0$$
    (同样在 25 °C)。知道 pH 或 pOH 其中之一,用 14 减去就得到另一个。

    在纯水里两种离子以相等的数目生成,所以 $[\text{H}_3\text{O}^+]=[\text{OH}^-]$$\text{pH}=\text{pOH}=7.0$。这就是中性(neutral)的意思。酸性意味着 $[\text{H}_3\text{O}^+]>[\text{OH}^-]$(pH 低于 7);碱性则相反。

    Worked example. 一个溶液有 $[\text{H}_3\text{O}^+]=2.0\times10^{-3}\ \text{M}$。求 $[\text{OH}^-]$。因为 $K_w$ 在水里始终成立,

    $$[\text{OH}^-]=\frac{K_w}{[\text{H}_3\text{O}^+]}=\frac{1.0\times10^{-14}}{2.0\times10^{-3}}=5.0\times10^{-12}\ \text{M}.$$
    氢氧根浓度远小于水合氢离子浓度,证实这个溶液是酸性的。

    $K_w$温度依赖的:自偶电离是吸热的,所以加热水使它正向移动并升高 $K_w$。在 50 °C,$K_w>1.0\times10^{-14}$,所以中性水有 $\text{pH}=\text{pOH}<7.0$。它仍然是中性的,因为离子浓度仍然相等——中性意味着离子相等,而不是 pH 恰好为 7。

    pH strips: water autoionizes so pure water is pH 7; acids and bases shift H+ and OH-
    pH strips: water autoionizes so pure water is pH 7; acids and bases shift H+ and OH-
    词汇表 训练
    英文 中文 拼音
    autoionization 自偶电离 zì ǒu diàn lí
    hydronium ion 水合氢离子 shuǐ hé qīng lí zi
    ion-product constant of water 水的离子积 shuǐ de lí zi jī
    neutral 中性 zhōng xìng
    pH pH值 pH zhí
    8.2

    强酸与强碱的 pH 与 pOH

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    8.2.A
    Calculate $\mathrm{pH}$ and $\mathrm{pOH}$ based on concentrations of all species in a solution of a strong acid or a strong base.

    • 8.2.A.1 Molecules of a strong acid (e.g., $\mathrm{HCl}$, $\mathrm{HBr}$, $\mathrm{HI}$, $\mathrm{HClO_4}$, $\mathrm{H_2SO_4}$, and $\mathrm{HNO_3}$) will completely ionize in aqueous solution to produce hydronium ions and the conjugate base of the acid. As such, the concentration of $\mathrm{H_3O^+}$ in a strong acid solution is equal to the initial concentration of the strong acid, and thus the $\mathrm{pH}$ of the strong acid solution is easily calculated.
    • 8.2.A.2 When dissolved in solution, strong bases (e.g., group I and II hydroxides) completely dissociate to produce hydroxide ions. As such, the concentration of $\mathrm{OH^-}$ in a strong base solution is equal to the initial concentration of a group I hydroxide and double the initial concentration of a group II hydroxide, and thus the $\mathrm{pOH}$ (and $\mathrm{pH}$) of the strong base solution is easily calculated.

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    pH值(pH)标度测量酸度:$\text{pH}=-\log[\text{H}^+]$,在 25 °C 有 $\text{pH}+\text{pOH}=14$。一个强酸(strong acid)或强碱(strong base)完全解离,所以它的离子浓度等于它的浓度——直接读 pH。更低的 pH 意味着更酸。

    pH 标度:pH 是氢离子浓度的负对数
    pH 标度:pH 是氢离子浓度的负对数

    Worked example.$0.010\ \text{M}$ HCl 的 pH。因为 HCl 是一个强酸它完全解离,所以 $[\text{H}^+]=0.010\ \text{M}$

    $$\text{pH}=-\log(0.010)=2.0.$$
    对于一个强$0.010\ \text{M}$ NaOH,$\text{pOH}=2.0$,所以 $\text{pH}=14-2.0=12.0$

    探索

    Move along the pH scale

    pH measures hydrogen-ion concentration on a log scale: each unit is a tenfold change. Strong acids sit low, strong bases high, 7 is neutral.

    词汇表 训练
    英文 中文 拼音
    strong acid 强酸 qiáng suān
    strong base 强碱 qiáng jiǎn
    8.3

    弱酸与弱碱的平衡

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    8.3.A
    Explain the relationship among $\mathrm{pH}$, $\mathrm{pOH}$, and concentrations of all species in a solution of a monoprotic weak acid or weak base.

    • 8.3.A.1 Weak acids react with water to produce hydronium ions. However, only a small percentage of molecules of a weak acid will ionize in this way. Thus, the concentration of $\mathrm{H_3O^+}$ is much less than the initial concentration of the molecular acid, and the vast majority of the acid molecules remain un-ionized.
    • 8.3.A.2 A solution of a weak acid involves equilibrium between an un-ionized acid and its conjugate base. The equilibrium constant for this reaction is $K_a$, often reported as $\mathrm{p}K_a$. The pH of a weak acid solution can be determined from the initial acid concentration and the $\mathrm{p}K_a$.
      • Equation: $K_a = \dfrac{[\mathrm{H_3O^+}][\mathrm{A^-}]}{[\mathrm{HA}]}$
      • Equation: $\mathrm{p}K_a = -\log K_a$
    • 8.3.A.3 Weak bases react with water to produce hydroxide ions in solution. However, ordinarily just a small percentage of the molecules of a weak base in solution will ionize in this way. Thus, the concentration of $\mathrm{OH^-}$ in the solution does not equal the initial concentration of the base, and the vast majority of the base molecules remain un-ionized.
    • 8.3.A.4 A solution of a weak base involves equilibrium between an un-ionized base and its conjugate acid. The equilibrium constant for this reaction is $K_b$, often reported as $\mathrm{p}K_b$. The $\mathrm{pH}$ of a weak base solution can be determined from the initial base concentration and the $\mathrm{p}K_b$.
      • Equation: $K_b = \dfrac{[\mathrm{OH^-}][\mathrm{HB^+}]}{[\mathrm{B}]}$
      • Equation: $\mathrm{p}K_b = -\log K_b$
    • 8.3.A.5 The percent ionization of a weak acid (or base) can be calculated from its $\mathrm{p}K_a$ ($\mathrm{p}K_b$) and the initial concentration of the acid (base). The percent ionization can also be calculated from the initial concentration of the acid (base) and the equilibrium concentration of any of the species in the equilibrium expression.
    • 8.3.A.6 For any conjugate acid-base pair, the acid ionization constant and base ionization constant are related by $K_w$:
      • Equation: $K_w = K_a \times K_b$
      • Equation: $\mathrm{p}K_w = \mathrm{p}K_a + \mathrm{p}K_b$

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    一个弱酸(weak acid)只部分解离,由一个平衡常数 $K_a$ 描述(更大的 $K_a$ = 更强的弱酸);一个弱碱有 $K_b$。因为解离很小,用一张 ICE 表和 $K_a$ 表达式求 $[\text{H}^+]$,常常用小-$x$ 近似。

    Worked example.$0.10\ \text{M}$ 乙酸的 pH,$K_a=1.8\times10^{-5}$。令 $x=[\text{H}^+]$ 在平衡处;ICE 表给出 $K_a=\dfrac{x^2}{0.10-x}\approx\dfrac{x^2}{0.10}$(小-$x$ 近似),所以

    $$x=\sqrt{K_a\times0.10}=\sqrt{1.8\times10^{-6}}=1.3\times10^{-3}\ \text{M}\;\Rightarrow\;\text{pH}=-\log(1.3\times10^{-3})=2.9.$$
    弱酸远不如一个相同浓度的强酸酸(它会是 pH $1.0$)。

    8.4

    酸碱反应与缓冲溶液

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    8.4.A
    Explain the relationship among the concentrations of major species in a mixture of weak and strong acids and bases.

    • 8.4.A.1 When a strong acid and a strong base are mixed, they react quantitatively in a reaction represented by the equation: $\mathrm{H^+}(aq) + \mathrm{OH^-}(aq) \rightarrow \mathrm{H_2O}(l)$. The pH of the resulting solution may be determined from the concentration of excess reagent.
    • 8.4.A.2 When a weak acid and a strong base are mixed, they react quantitatively in a reaction represented by the equation: $\mathrm{HA}(aq) + \mathrm{OH^-}(aq) \rightleftarrows \mathrm{A^-}(aq)\ \mathrm{H_2O}(l)$. If the weak acid is in excess, then a buffer solution is formed, and the $\mathrm{pH}$ can be determined from the Henderson-Hasselbalch (H–H) equation (see 8.9.A.1). If the strong base is in excess, then the $\mathrm{pH}$ can be determined from the moles of excess hydroxide ion and the total volume of solution. If they are equimolar, then the (slightly basic) $\mathrm{pH}$ can be determined from the equilibrium represented by the equation: $\mathrm{A^-}(aq) + \mathrm{H_2O}(l) \rightleftarrows \mathrm{HA}(aq) + \mathrm{OH^-}(aq)$.
    • 8.4.A.3 When a weak base and a strong acid are mixed, they will react quantitatively in a reaction represented by the equation: $\mathrm{B}(aq) + \mathrm{H_3O^+}(aq) \rightleftarrows \mathrm{HB^+}(aq) + \mathrm{H_2O}(l)$. If the weak base is in excess, then a buffer solution is formed, and the $\mathrm{pH}$ can be determined from the H–H equation. If the strong acid is in excess, then the $\mathrm{pH}$ can be determined from the moles of excess hydronium ion and the total volume of solution. If they are equimolar, then the (slightly acidic) $\mathrm{pH}$ can be determined from the equilibrium represented by the equation: $\mathrm{HB^+}(aq) + \mathrm{H_2O}(l) \rightleftarrows \mathrm{B}(aq) + \mathrm{H_3O^+}(aq)$.
    • 8.4.A.4 When a weak acid and a weak base are mixed, they will react to an equilibrium state whose reaction may be represented by the equation: $\mathrm{HA}(aq) + \mathrm{B}(aq) \rightleftarrows \mathrm{A^-}(aq) + \mathrm{HB^+}(aq)$.

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    一个缓冲溶液(buffer)抵抗 pH 变化。它含一个弱酸它的共轭碱(或一个弱碱和它的共轭酸)以相当的量。加入的酸被共轭碱中和,而加入的碱被弱酸中和,所以 pH 几乎不移动。

    词汇表 训练
    英文 中文 拼音
    buffer 缓冲溶液 huǎn chōng róng yè
    8.5

    酸碱滴定

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    8.5.A
    Explain results from the titration of a mono- or polyprotic acid or base solution, in relation to the properties of the solution and its components.

    • 8.5.A.1 An acid-base reaction can be carried out under controlled conditions in a titration. A titration curve, plotting $\mathrm{pH}$ against the volume of titrant added, is useful for summarizing results from a titration.
    • 8.5.A.2 At the equivalence point for titrations of monoprotic acids or bases, the number of moles of titrant added is equal to the number of moles of analyte originally present. This relationship can be used to obtain the concentration of the analyte. This is the case for titrations of strong acids/bases and weak acids/bases.
    • 8.5.A.3 For titrations of weak acids/bases, it is useful to consider the point halfway to the equivalence point, that is, the half-equivalence point. At this point, there are equal concentrations of each species in the conjugate acid-base pair, for example, for a weak acid $[\mathrm{HA}] = [\mathrm{A^-}]$. Because $\mathrm{pH} = \mathrm{p}K_a$ when the conjugate acid and base have equal concentrations, the $\mathrm{p}K_a$ can be determined from the $\mathrm{pH}$ at the half-equivalence point in a titration.
    • 8.5.A.4 At the equivalence point, pH is determined by the major species in solution. Strong acid and strong base titrations result in neutral pH at the equivalence point. However, in titrations of weak acids (weak bases), the conjugate base of the weak acid (conjugate acid of the weak base) is present at the equivalence point and can undergo proton-transfer reactions with the surrounding water, producing basic (acidic) solutions.
    • 8.5.A.5 For polyprotic acids, titration curves can be used to determine the number of acidic protons. In doing so, the major species present at any point along the curve can be identified, along with the $\mathrm{p}K_a$ associated with each proton in a weak polyprotic acid.
      • Exclusion statement: Computation of the concentration of each species present in the titration curve for polyprotic acids will not be assessed on the AP Exam. Such computations for titration of monoprotic acids are within the scope of the course (see 8.4.A.2 and 8.4.A.3), as is qualitative reasoning regarding what species are present in large versus small concentrations at any point in a titration of a polyprotic acid.

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    酸碱滴定曲线

    一条滴定曲线(titration curve)在加入碱(或酸)时画出 pH。关键点:等当点(equivalence point)(酸的摩尔 = 碱的摩尔——一个陡峭的跳跃),和半等当点(half-equivalence point),那里 $\text{pH}=\text{p}K_a$(一半的弱酸被转化,所以一个缓冲溶液在它的中心)。

    一种酸碱指示剂(acid-base indicator)本身是一种弱酸,它的质子化形式和去质子化形式有不同的颜色,所以它的颜色随 pH 而响应。你要挑选一种颜色变化发生在滴定等当点 pH 附近的指示剂,这样颜色恰好在反应完成时翻转。

    一条滴定曲线在等当点附近有一个陡峭的跳跃
    一条滴定曲线在等当点附近有一个陡峭的跳跃
    探索

    Titrate to the equivalence point

    A titration curve rises gently, then sharply at the equivalence point where moles of acid and base match. The steep jump pinpoints that volume.

    词汇表 训练
    英文 中文 拼音
    titration curve 滴定曲线 dī dìng qū xiàn
    equivalence point 等当点 děng dāng diǎn
    acid-base indicator 酸碱指示剂 suān jiǎn zhǐ shì jì
    8.6

    酸碱的分子结构

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    8.6.A
    Explain the relationship between the strength of an acid or base and the structure of the molecule or ion.

    • 8.6.A.1 The protons on a molecule that will participate in acid-base reactions, and the relative strength of these protons, can be inferred from the molecular structure.
      • i. Strong acids (such as $\mathrm{HCl}$, $\mathrm{HBr}$, $\mathrm{HI}$, $\mathrm{HClO_4}$, $\mathrm{H_2SO_4}$, and $\mathrm{HNO_3}$) have very weak conjugate bases that are stabilized by electronegativity, inductive effects, resonance, or some combination thereof.
      • ii. Carboxylic acids are one common class of weak acid.
      • iii. Strong bases (such as group I and II hydroxides) have very weak conjugate acids.
      • iv. Common weak bases include nitrogenous bases such as ammonia as well as carboxylate ions.
      • v. Electronegative elements tend to stabilize the conjugate base relative to the conjugate acid, and so increase acid strength.

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    强度有结构的根源。一个酸更强,当它的共轭碱更稳定时——例如,更多电负性原子或共振散布负电荷稳定它。对于含氧酸,中心原子上更多氧原子意味着一个更强的酸。

    8.7

    pH 与 pKa

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    8.7.A
    Explain the relationship between the predominant form of a weak acid or base in solution at a given $\mathrm{pH}$ and the $\mathrm{p}K_a$ of the conjugate acid or the $\mathrm{p}K_b$ of the conjugate base.

    • 8.7.A.1 The protonation state of an acid or base (i.e., the relative concentrations of $\mathrm{HA}$ and $\mathrm{A^-}$) can be predicted by comparing the $\mathrm{pH}$ of a solution to the $\mathrm{p}K_a$ of the acid in that solution. When solution $\mathrm{pH} < \mathrm{acid}\ \mathrm{p}K_a$, the acid form has a higher concentration than the base form. When solution $\mathrm{pH} > \mathrm{acid}\ \mathrm{p}K_a$, the base form has a higher concentration than the acid form.
    • 8.7.A.2 Acid-base indicators are substances that exhibit different properties (such as color) in their protonated versus deprotonated state, making that property respond to the $\mathrm{pH}$ of a solution.
    • 8.7.A.3 To ensure accurate results in a titration experiment, acid-base indicators should be selected that have a $\mathrm{p}K_a$ close to the $\mathrm{pH}$ at the equivalence point.

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    $\text{p}K_a=-\log K_a$:一个更小$\text{p}K_a$ 意味着一个更强的酸。把 pH 与 $\text{p}K_a$ 比较告诉你主导的形式:低于 $\text{p}K_a$ 酸形式主导;高于它,共轭碱形式主导。

    8.8

    缓冲溶液的性质

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    8.8.A
    Explain the relationship between the ability of a buffer to stabilize $\mathrm{pH}$ and the reactions that occur when an acid or a base is added to a buffered solution.

    • 8.8.A.1 A buffer solution contains a large concentration of both members in a conjugate acid-base pair. The conjugate acid reacts with added base and the conjugate base reacts with added acid. These reactions are responsible for the ability of a buffer to stabilize $\mathrm{pH}$.

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    缓冲溶液如何抵抗 pH 变化

    一个缓冲溶液在弱酸和共轭碱浓度相似(pH 接近 $\text{p}K_a$)时工作最好。选择一个 $\text{p}K_a$ 接近目标 pH 的缓冲溶液。稀释一个缓冲溶液几乎不改变它的 pH,因为酸对碱的保持相同。

    一个缓冲溶液通过吸收加入的酸或碱来抵抗 pH 变化
    一个缓冲溶液通过吸收加入的酸或碱来抵抗 pH 变化
    8.9

    亨德森-哈塞尔巴尔赫方程

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    8.9.A
    Identify the $\mathrm{pH}$ of a buffer solution based on the identity and concentrations of the conjugate acid-base pair used to create the buffer.

    • 8.9.A.1 The $\mathrm{pH}$ of the buffer is related to the $\mathrm{p}K_a$ of the acid and the concentration ratio of the conjugate acid-base pair. This relation is a consequence of the equilibrium expression associated with the dissociation of a weak acid, and is described by the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation. Adding small amounts of acid or base to a buffered solution does not significantly change the ratio of $[\mathrm{A^-}]/[\mathrm{HA}]$ and thus does not significantly change the solution $\mathrm{pH}$. The change in $\mathrm{pH}$ on addition of acid or base to a buffered solution is therefore much less than it would have been in the absence of the buffer.
      • Equation: $\mathrm{pH} = \mathrm{p}K_a + \log\dfrac{[\mathrm{A^-}]}{[\mathrm{HA}]}$
      • Exclusion statement: Computation of the change in pH resulting from the addition of an acid or a base to a buffer will not be assessed on the AP Exam.
      • Exclusion statement: Derivation of the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation will not be assessed on the AP Exam.

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    对于一个缓冲溶液,pH 由酸对碱的比得出:

    $$\text{pH}=\text{p}K_a+\log\frac{[\text{A}^-]}{[\text{HA}]}.$$
    当浓度相等时,对数是零而 $\text{pH}=\text{p}K_a$。用它来设计一个缓冲溶液或快速求它的 pH。

    Worked example. 一个缓冲溶液持有 $0.20\ \text{M}$ 乙酸($\text{p}K_a=4.74$)和 $0.30\ \text{M}$ 乙酸盐。它的 pH 是

    $$\text{pH}=4.74+\log\frac{0.30}{0.20}=4.74+\log(1.5)=4.74+0.18=4.92.$$
    比酸稍多一点的共轭碱把 pH 推到 $\text{p}K_a$ 稍上,正如方程所预测。

    8.10

    缓冲容量

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    8.10.A
    Explain the relationship between the buffer capacity of a solution and the relative concentrations of the conjugate acid and conjugate base components of the solution.

    • 8.10.A.1 Increasing the concentration of the buffer components (while keeping the ratio of these concentrations constant) keeps the $\mathrm{pH}$ of the buffer the same but increases the capacity of the buffer to neutralize added acid or base.
    • 8.10.A.2 When a buffer has more conjugate acid than base, it has a greater buffer capacity for addition of added base than acid. When a buffer has more conjugate base than acid, it has a greater buffer capacity for addition of added acid than base.

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    缓冲容量(buffer capacity)是一个缓冲溶液在它的 pH 急剧变化之前能吸收多少酸或碱。它在组分且以大致相等的量时最大。一旦一个组分被用尽,缓冲溶液失效。

    词汇表 训练
    英文 中文 拼音
    Buffer capacity 缓冲容量 huǎn chōng róng liàng
    8.11

    pH 与溶解度

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    8.11.A
    Identify the qualitative effect of changes in pH on the solubility of a salt.

    • 8.11.A.1 The solubility of a salt is pH sensitive when one of the constituent ions is a weak acid, a weak base, or the hydroxide ion. These effects can be understood qualitatively using Le Châtelier's principle.
      • Exclusion statement: Computations of solubility as a function of pH will not be assessed on the AP Exam.

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    一个带一个碱性阴离子的盐的溶解度在酸性溶液里上升:加入的 $\text{H}^+$ 与阴离子反应,把它从溶解度平衡里移除并拉更多固体溶解(勒沙特列应用于 $K_{sp}$)。所以 pH 能控制一个离子固体是否溶解。

    8.11

    考试技巧

    • $\text{pH}=-\log[\text{H}^+]$对数的——每一个单位是 $[\text{H}^+]$ 的一个十倍变化。
    • 一个酸/碱完全解离(所以 $[\text{H}^+]$ = 浓度);一个的只部分,需要 $K_a$
    • 一个缓冲溶液含一个弱酸它的共轭碱在一起;它通过吸收加入的酸或碱来抵抗 pH 变化。
    • 在一条滴定曲线上等当点是陡峭的跳跃;半等当点$\text{pH}=\text{p}K_a$
    • 一个更小的 $\text{p}K_a$ 意味着一个更强的酸。
  • 9

    热力学与电化学

    讲义 词汇表
    9.1

    熵导论

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    9.1.A
    Identify the sign and relative magnitude of the entropy change associated with chemical or physical processes.

    • 9.1.A.1 Entropy increases when matter becomes more dispersed. For example, the phase change from solid to liquid or from liquid to gas results in a dispersal of matter as the individual particles become freer to move and generally occupy a larger volume. Similarly, for a gas, the entropy increases when there is an increase in volume (at constant temperature), and the gas molecules are able to move within a larger space. For reactions involving gas-phase reactants or products, the entropy generally increases when the total number of moles of gas-phase products is greater than the total number of moles of gas-phase reactants.
    • 9.1.A.2 Entropy increases when energy is dispersed. According to kinetic molecular theory (KMT), the distribution of kinetic energy among the particles of a gas broadens as the temperature increases. As a result, the entropy of the system increases with an increase in temperature.

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    (entropy)$S$ 测量能量和物质的分散——粗略地说,排列一个系统的方式数目。熵在一个物质经历 固体 → 液体 → 气体、当一个固体溶解、当气体摩尔增加,或当温度上升时增加。更多无序意味着更高的熵。

    熵从固体到液体到气体上升
    熵从固体到液体到气体上升
    词汇表 训练
    英文 中文 拼音
    Entropy shāng
    9.2

    绝对熵与熵变

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    9.2.A
    Calculate the standard entropy change for a chemical or physical process based on the absolute entropies (standard molar entropies) of the species involved in the process.

    • 9.2.A.1 The entropy change for a process can be calculated from the absolute entropies of the species involved before and after the process occurs.
      • Equation: $\Delta S^{\circ}_{reaction} = \Sigma S^{\circ}_{products} - \Sigma S^{\circ}_{reactants}$

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    每个物质有一个正的绝对熵 $S^\circ$。对于一个反应,

    $$\Delta S^\circ = \sum S^\circ(\text{products}) - \sum S^\circ(\text{reactants}).$$
    从气体摩尔的变化预测它的符号:制造更多气体提高熵($\Delta S>0$)。

    9.3

    吉布斯自由能与热力学倾向性

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    9.3.A
    Explain whether a physical or chemical process is thermodynamically favored based on an evaluation of $\Delta G^{\circ}$.

    • 9.3.A.1 The Gibbs free energy change for a chemical process in which all the reactants and products are present in a standard state (as pure substances, as solutions of 1.0 M concentration, or as gases at a pressure of 1.0 atm (or 1.0 bar)) is given the symbol $\Delta G^{\circ}$.

    • 9.3.A.2 The standard Gibbs free energy change for a chemical or physical process is a measure of thermodynamic favorability. Historically, the term "spontaneous" has been used to describe processes for which $\Delta G^{\circ} < 0$. The phrase "thermodynamically favored" is preferred instead so that common misunderstandings (equating "spontaneous" with "suddenly" or "without cause") can be avoided. When $\Delta G^{\circ} < 0$ for the process, it is said to be thermodynamically favored.

    • 9.3.A.3 The standard Gibbs free energy change for a physical or chemical process may also be determined from the standard Gibbs free energy of formation of the reactants and products.

      • Equation: $\Delta G^{\circ}_{reaction} = \Sigma \Delta G^{\circ}_{f\ products} - \Sigma \Delta G^{\circ}_{f\ reactants}$
    • 9.3.A.4 In some cases, it is necessary to consider both enthalpy and entropy to determine if a process will be thermodynamically favored. The freezing of water and the dissolution of sodium nitrate are examples of such phenomena.

    • 9.3.A.5 Knowing the values of $\Delta H^{\circ}$ and $\Delta S^{\circ}$ for a process at a given temperature allows $\Delta G^{\circ}$ to be calculated directly.

      • Equation: $\Delta G^{\circ} = \Delta H^{\circ} - T\,\Delta S^{\circ}$
    • 9.3.A.6 In general, the temperature conditions for a process to be thermodynamically favored ($\Delta G^{\circ} < 0$) can be predicted from the signs of $\Delta H^{\circ}$ and $\Delta S^{\circ}$ as shown in the table below:

      $\Delta H^{\circ}$ $\Delta S^{\circ}$ Symbols $\Delta G^{\circ} < 0$, favored at:
      $< 0$ $> 0$ $<\ >$ all $T$
      $> 0$ $< 0$ $>\ <$ no $T$
      $> 0$ $> 0$ $>\ >$ high $T$
      $< 0$ $< 0$ $<\ <$ low $T$

      In cases where $\Delta H^{\circ} < 0$ and $\Delta S^{\circ} > 0$, no calculation of $\Delta G^{\circ}$ is necessary to determine that the process is thermodynamically favored ($\Delta G^{\circ} < 0$). In cases where $\Delta H^{\circ} > 0$ and $\Delta S^{\circ} < 0$, no calculation of $\Delta G^{\circ}$ is necessary to determine that the process is thermodynamically unfavored ($\Delta G^{\circ} > 0$).

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    吉布斯自由能(Gibbs free energy)结合焓和熵:

    $$\Delta G = \Delta H - T\Delta S.$$
    一个过程热力学有利(thermodynamically favorable),当 $\Delta G<0$ 时。所以放热($\Delta H<0$)和熵增加($\Delta S>0$)的反应总是有利;当两者对立时,温度决定。

    一个反应是否有利,从焓变和熵变的符号
    一个反应是否有利,从焓变和熵变的符号

    Worked example. 一个反应有 $\Delta H=+40\ \text{kJ/mol}$$\Delta S=+120\ \text{J/(mol K)}$。它是吸热的(不利的焓)但熵增加,所以它只在足够热时才变得有利。令 $\Delta G=\Delta H-T\Delta S<0$ 并匹配单位($\Delta S=0.120\ \text{kJ}$):

    $$T>\frac{\Delta H}{\Delta S}=\frac{40}{0.120}=333\ \text{K}\;(60\,{}^{\circ}\text{C}).$$

    词汇表 训练
    英文 中文 拼音
    Gibbs free energy 吉布斯自由能 jí bù sī zì yóu néng
    thermodynamically favorable 热力学有利 rè lì xué yǒu lì
    9.4

    热力学控制与动力学控制

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    9.4.A
    Explain, in terms of kinetics, why a thermodynamically favored reaction might not occur at a measurable rate.

    • 9.4.A.1 Many processes that are thermodynamically favored do not occur to any measurable extent, or they occur at extremely slow rates.
    • 9.4.A.2 Processes that are thermodynamically favored, but do not proceed at a measurable rate, are under "kinetic control." High activation energy is a common reason for a process to be under kinetic control. The fact that a process does not proceed at a noticeable rate does not mean that the chemical system is at equilibrium. If a process is known to be thermodynamically favored, and yet does not occur at a measurable rate, it is reasonable to conclude that the process is under kinetic control.

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    $\Delta G<0$ 说一个反应发生,不是它快速发生。一个反应能热力学有利,却动力学地慢,因为一个高的活化能(金刚石 → 石墨)。热力学给出方向;动力学给出速度。

    9.5

    自由能与平衡

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    9.5.A
    Explain whether a process is thermodynamically favored using the relationships between $K$, $\Delta G^{\circ}$, and $T$.

    • 9.5.A.1 The phrase "thermodynamically favored" ($\Delta G^{\circ} < 0$) means that the products are favored at equilibrium ($K > 1$) under standard conditions.
    • 9.5.A.2 The equilibrium constant is related to free energy by the equations
      • Equation: $K = e^{-\Delta G^{\circ}/RT}$
      • Equation: $\Delta G^{\circ} = -RT \ln K$
    • 9.5.A.3 Connections between $K$ and $\Delta G^{\circ}$ can be made qualitatively through estimation. When $\Delta G^{\circ}$ is near zero, the equilibrium constant will be close to 1. When $\Delta G^{\circ}$ is much larger or much smaller than $RT$, the value of $K$ deviates strongly from 1.
    • 9.5.A.4 Processes with $\Delta G^{\circ} < 0$ favor products (i.e., $K > 1$) and those with $\Delta G^{\circ} > 0$ favor reactants (i.e., $K < 1$).

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    自由能联系到平衡常数:

    $$\Delta G^\circ = -RT\ln K.$$
    所以 $\Delta G^\circ<0$ 给出 $K>1$(产物被偏爱),而 $\Delta G^\circ>0$ 给出 $K<1$。在平衡处 $\Delta G=0$

    A battery converts free energy of a spontaneous redox reaction into electrical work
    A battery converts free energy of a spontaneous redox reaction into electrical work
    9.6

    溶解的自由能

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    9.6.A
    Explain the relationship between the solubility of a salt and changes in the enthalpy and entropy that occur in the dissolution process.

    • 9.6.A.1 The free energy change ($\Delta G^{\circ}$) for dissolution of a substance reflects a number of factors: the breaking of the intermolecular interactions that hold the solid together, the reorganization of the solvent around the dissolved species, and the interaction of the dissolved species with the solvent. It is possible to estimate the sign and relative magnitude of the enthalpic and entropic contributions to each of these factors. However, making predictions for the total change in free energy of dissolution can be challenging due to the cancellations among the free energies associated with the three factors cited.

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    一个盐是否溶解取决于溶解的自由能变化。溶解常常增加熵(有序的固体 → 分散的离子)但可能花费焓;$\Delta G$(因而 $K_{sp}$)的符号由 $\Delta H - T\Delta S$ 得出。

    9.7

    耦合反应

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    9.7.A
    Explain the relationship between external sources of energy or coupled reactions and their ability to drive thermodynamically unfavorable processes.

    • 9.7.A.1 An external source of energy can be used to make a thermodynamically unfavorable process occur. Examples include:
      • 9.7.A.1.i Electrical energy to drive an electrolytic cell or charge a battery.
      • 9.7.A.1.ii Light to drive the overall conversion of carbon dioxide to glucose in photosynthesis.
    • 9.7.A.2 A desired product can be formed by coupling a thermodynamically unfavorable reaction that produces that product to a favorable reaction (e.g., the conversion of $ATP$ to $ADP$ in biological systems). In the coupled system, the individual reactions share one or more common intermediates. The sum of the individual reactions produces an overall reaction that achieves the desired outcome and has $\Delta G^{\circ} < 0$.

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    一个不利的反应($\Delta G>0$)能通过把它耦合(coupling)到一个共享一个共同中间体的有利的反应($\Delta G<0$)来驱动,只要$\Delta G<0$。这就是细胞如何用 ATP 来驱动否则不利的过程。

    9.8

    原电池与电解池

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    9.8.A
    Explain the relationship between the physical components of an electrochemical cell and the overall operational principles of the cell.

    • 9.8.A.1 Each component of an electrochemical cell (electrodes, solutions in the half-cells, salt bridge, voltage/current measuring device) plays a specific role in the overall functioning of the cell. The operational characteristics of the cell (galvanic vs. electrolytic, direction of electron flow, reactions occurring in each half-cell, change in electrode mass, evolution of a gas at an electrode, ion flow through the salt bridge) can be described at both the macroscopic and particulate levels.
    • 9.8.A.2 Galvanic, sometimes called voltaic, cells involve a thermodynamically favored reaction, whereas electrolytic cells involve a thermodynamically unfavored reaction. Visual representations of galvanic and electrolytic cells are tools of analysis to identify where half-reactions occur and in what direction current flows.
    • 9.8.A.3 For all electrochemical cells, oxidation occurs at the anode and reduction occurs at the cathode.
      • Exclusion statement: Labeling an electrode as positive or negative will not be assessed on the AP Exam.

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    原电池

    氧化还原反应能通过一根导线移动电子:

    一个带盐桥和电压表的原电池
    一个带盐桥和电压表的原电池
    • 一个原电池(伏打电池)(galvanic (voltaic) cell)用一个有利的反应($\Delta G<0$)来产生电——一个电池。
    • 一个电解池(electrolytic cell)用电来迫使一个不利的反应($\Delta G>0$)。

    在两者里,氧化阳极(anode)发生而还原阴极(cathode)发生。

    Commercial batteries: galvanic cells convert chemical free energy into electrical work
    Commercial batteries: galvanic cells convert chemical free energy into electrical work
    探索

    Transfer electrons in a cell

    In a galvanic cell a spontaneous redox reaction drives electrons through a wire, doing electrical work; oxidation at one electrode, reduction at the other.

    词汇表 训练
    英文 中文 拼音
    galvanic (voltaic) cell 原电池 yuán diàn chí
    electrolytic cell 电解池 diàn jiě chí
    anode 阳极 yáng jí
    cathode 阴极 yīn jí
    9.9

    电池电势与自由能

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    9.9.A
    Explain whether an electrochemical cell is thermodynamically favored, based on its standard cell potential and the constituent half-reactions within the cell.

    • 9.9.A.1 Electrochemistry encompasses the study of redox reactions that occur within electrochemical cells. The reactions are either thermodynamically favored (resulting in a positive voltage) or thermodynamically unfavored (resulting in a negative voltage and requiring an externally applied potential for the reaction to proceed).
    • 9.9.A.2 The standard cell potential of electrochemical cells can be calculated by identifying the oxidation and reduction half-reactions and their respective standard reduction potentials.
    • 9.9.A.3 $\Delta G^{\circ}$ (standard Gibbs free energy change) is proportional to the negative of the cell potential for the redox reaction from which it is constructed. Thus, a cell with a positive $E^{\circ}$ involves a thermodynamically favored reaction, and a cell with a negative $E^{\circ}$ involves a thermodynamically unfavored reaction.
      • Equation: $\Delta G^{\circ} = -nFE^{\circ}$

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    电池电势(cell potential)$E^\circ_{\text{cell}}$ 以伏特测量驱动力,从标准还原电位求出($E^\circ_{\text{cathode}}-E^\circ_{\text{anode}}$)。它通过以下与自由能联系

    $$\Delta G^\circ = -nFE^\circ_{\text{cell}},$$
    其中 $n$ 是电子的摩尔而 $F$ 是法拉第常数。一个正的 $E^\circ_{\text{cell}}$ 意味着一个有利的(原电池)反应。

    标准电极电位的电化学序
    标准电极电位的电化学序

    Worked example. 一个电池把一个铜阴极($\text{Cu}^{2+}+2e^-\rightarrow\text{Cu}$,$E^\circ=+0.34\ \text{V}$)与一个锌阳极($\text{Zn}^{2+}+2e^-\rightarrow\text{Zn}$,$E^\circ=-0.76\ \text{V}$)配对。电池电势是

    $$E^\circ_{\text{cell}}=E^\circ_{\text{cathode}}-E^\circ_{\text{anode}}=0.34-(-0.76)=1.10\ \text{V}.$$
    它是正的,所以反应是自发的而电池(一个丹尼尔电池)作为一个电池起作用。

    词汇表 训练
    英文 中文 拼音
    cell potential 电池电势 diàn chí diàn shì
    9.10

    非标准条件下的电池电势

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    9.10.A
    Explain the relationship between deviations from standard cell conditions and changes in the cell potential.

    • 9.10.A.1 In a real system under nonstandard conditions, the cell potential will vary depending on the concentrations of the active species. The cell potential is a driving force toward equilibrium; the farther the reaction is from equilibrium, the greater the magnitude of the cell potential.

    • 9.10.A.2 Equilibrium arguments such as Le Châtelier's principle do not apply to electrochemical systems, because the systems are not in equilibrium.

    • 9.10.A.3 The standard cell potential $E^{\circ}$ corresponds to the standard conditions of $Q = 1$. As the system approaches equilibrium, the magnitude (i.e., absolute value) of the cell potential decreases, reaching zero at equilibrium (when $Q = K$). Deviations from standard conditions that take the cell further from equilibrium than $Q = 1$ will increase the magnitude of the cell potential relative to $E^{\circ}$. Deviations from standard conditions that take the cell closer to equilibrium than $Q = 1$ will decrease the magnitude of the cell potential relative to $E^{\circ}$. In concentration cells, the direction of spontaneous electron flow can be determined by considering the direction needed to reach equilibrium.

    • 9.10.A.4 Algorithmic calculations using the Nernst equation are insufficient to demonstrate an understanding of electrochemical cells under nonstandard conditions. However, students should qualitatively understand the effects of concentration on cell potential and use conceptual reasoning, including the qualitative use of the Nernst equation:

      • Equation: $E = E^{\circ} - (RT/nF) \ln Q$

      to solve problems.

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    离开标准条件,电势随浓度移动——能斯特方程(Nernst equation)(定性地):随着反应物被消耗,$Q$ 上升而 $E_{\text{cell}}$ 下降,在平衡处达到零(一个耗尽的电池)。改变一个浓度以勒沙特列预测的方式移动 $E_{\text{cell}}$

    词汇表 训练
    英文 中文 拼音
    Nernst equation 能斯特方程 néng sī tè fāng chéng
    9.11

    电解与法拉第定律

    大纲
    Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

    9.11.A
    Calculate the amount of charge flow based on changes in the amounts of reactants and products in an electrochemical cell.

    • 9.11.A.1 Faraday's laws can be used to determine the stoichiometry of the redox reaction occurring in an electrochemical cell with respect to the following:
      • 9.11.A.1.i Number of electrons transferred
      • 9.11.A.1.ii Mass of material deposited on or removed from an electrode (as in electroplating)
      • 9.11.A.1.iii Current
      • 9.11.A.1.iv Time elapsed
      • 9.11.A.1.v Charge of ionic species
      • Equation: $I = q/t$

    来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

    电解

    电解(electrolysis)里,通过的电荷决定多少物质被沉积或产生——法拉第定律(Faraday's law)。把 电流 × 时间 转换成电荷、电荷转换成电子的摩尔($F=96{,}485$ C/mol),然后用半反应的电子比来得到产物的摩尔(和质量)。

    电解:离子移向电极并被放电
    电解:离子移向电极并被放电

    Worked example. 一个 $2.0\ \text{A}$ 的电流流过硫酸铜(II)($\text{Cu}^{2+}+2e^-\rightarrow\text{Cu}$)$30\ \text{minutes}$。沉积多少铜?电荷是 $Q=It=2.0\times1800=3600\ \text{C}$,给出 $3600/96485=0.0373\ \text{mol}$ 的电子。因为每个 Cu 需要 $2$ 个电子,$0.0187\ \text{mol}$ 的 Cu 形成,质量 $0.0187\times63.5=1.2\ \text{g}$

    探索

    Electrolyse a molten salt

    Electrolysis uses current to force a non-spontaneous reaction: positive ions gain electrons at the cathode, negative ions lose them at the anode. Charge sets the amount deposited.

    词汇表 训练
    英文 中文 拼音
    electrolysis 电解 diàn jiě
    Faraday's law 法拉第定律 fǎ lā dì dìng lǜ
    9.11

    考试技巧

    • 一个过程热力学有利,当 $\Delta G<0$ 时;用 $\Delta G=\Delta H-T\Delta S$ 结合焓和熵(匹配单位——kJ vs J)。
    • 熵在 固体→液体→气体 以及当产生更多气体摩尔时增加
    • 有利意味着快——一个高的活化能能使一个 $\Delta G<0$ 的反应极其慢(动力学控制)。
    • 在电化学里一个正的 $E^\circ_{\text{cell}}=E^\circ_{\text{cathode}}-E^\circ_{\text{anode}}$ 意味着一个自发的(原电池)电池;氧化在阳极、还原在阴极
    • 在电解里通过的电荷($Q=It$)固定沉积的量(法拉第定律)。

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IGCSE, A-Level & AP