| Enduring Understanding | Learning Objective | Essential Knowledge |
|---|---|---|
CHA-1 | CHA-1.A |
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AP 微积分 BC
AP 微积分 BC 包含 AB 的全部内容,并增加两大板块:参数方程、极坐标与向量值函数,以及无穷 数列与级数。它相当于大学微积分的两个学期,考生在获得 BC 分数的同时还会得到一个 AB 子分数。
级数决定 BC 的成败。各个收敛判别法单独看都不难,合在一起却容易混乱,因此真正值得培养的 能力是快速选对判别法——这来自大量做题,而不是背诵清单。泰勒与麦克劳林级数以及误差估计, 每年都会稳定出现。
参数与极坐标部分,大多是熟悉的微积分换了陌生的记号,难点在于符号处理而非概念。本站笔记按 College Board 的单元编排,每单元一页,给出选择收敛判别法的决策路径,每个级数推导都完整 推完。
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极限与连续性
1.1
微积分引入:变化能在某一瞬间发生吗?
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来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
微积分是变化(change)和累积(accumulation)的数学。它回答两个大问题:某物现在变化得多快,以及到目前为止积累了多少?第 1 单元构建两个问题都依赖的那一个工具——极限(limit)。
从一个谜题开始。一辆车的速度表读 $60$ km/h。那在一个单一的瞬间(instant)意味着什么?速度是距离除以时间。但在一个瞬间没有时间流逝而没有距离被覆盖,所以这个分数看起来像 $\tfrac{0}{0}$ ——未定义。
- 平均变化率(average rate of change)使用一整个区间(interval):一个量的变化除以另一个的变化。当输入的变化会是零时,它除以零,因而未定义。
- 瞬时变化率(instantaneous rate of change)是我们想要的在一个点的。它是随着区间朝零长度收缩,平均率所趋近(approaches)的值。
聪明的做法不是代入零(未定义),而是观察随着区间变得越来越小,平均率趋近什么。那个趋近的值是一个极限(limit)。所以微积分让我们描述一个瞬间的变化——作为越来越短区间上平均率的一个极限。这一个思想驱动导数(derivative)(第 2 单元),以及反向运行的积分(integral)(第 6 单元)。这个单元里其他一切都仔细地定义极限并可靠地计算它们。
探索Explore the slope at an instant
y = bx² + d
Slide the point along the curve. The tangent line shows the exact rate of change $\frac{dy}{dx}$ there — the value the average rates approach as the interval shrinks to a single instant. The slope changes with position, so change does have a value at each instant.
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 change 变化 biàn huà accumulation 累积 lěi jī limit 极限 jí xiàn at a single instant 瞬间 shùn jiān average rate of change 平均变化率 píng jūn biàn huà lǜ interval 区间 qū jiān instantaneous rate of change 瞬时变化率 shùn shí biàn huà lǜ approaches 趋近 qū jìn derivative 导数 dǎo shù integral 积分 jī fēn 1.2
定义极限与使用极限记号
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Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge LIM-1
Reasoning with definitions, theorems, and properties can be used to justify claims about limits.LIM-1.A
Represent limits analytically using correct notation.- LIM-1.A.1 Given a function $f$, the limit of $f(x)$ as $x$ approaches $c$ is a real number $R$ if $f(x)$ can be made arbitrarily close to $R$ by taking $x$ sufficiently close to $c$ (but not equal to $c$). If the limit exists and is a real number, then the common notation is $\lim_{x \to c} f(x) = R$.
- Exclusion statement: The epsilon-delta definition of a limit is not assessed on the AP Calculus AB or BC Exam. However, teachers may include this topic in the course if time permits.
LIM-1.B
Interpret limits expressed in analytic notation.- LIM-1.B.1 A limit can be expressed in multiple ways, including graphically, numerically, and analytically.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
给定一个函数 $f$,当 $x$ 趋近 $c$ 时 $f(x)$ 的极限是一个实数 $R$,若通过取 $x$ 足够(sufficiently)接近 $c$ ——但不等于 $c$ ——能使 $f(x)$ 任意地(arbitrarily)接近 $R$。我们写
$$\lim_{x \to c} f(x) = R$$并读它:"$f(x)$ 的极限,当 $x$ 趋近 $c$ 时,等于 $R$。"最后的词是一个极限的核心:它描述 $f$ 在 $c$ 附近的行为(behavior),不是在 $c$ 处的值。函数可能在 $c$ 处未定义,或有定义但等于别的东西——极限不在乎。
一个极限能以三种方式展示:用图象(graphically)、用数值(numerically)(一张表),和用解析式(analytically)(代数)。学会在这些表示之间移动是一项核心技能。
(注:一个极限的 epsilon-delta 定义不在 AP 考试上考查,所以本讲义不使用它。)
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 arbitrarily 任意地 rèn yì dì sufficiently 足够 zú gòu behavior 行为 xíng wéi graphically 用图象 yòng tú xiàng numerically 用数值 yòng shù zhí analytically 用解析式 yòng jiě xī shì 1.3
从图像估计极限值
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Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge LIM-1
Reasoning with definitions, theorems, and properties can be used to justify claims about limits.LIM-1.C
Estimate limits of functions.- LIM-1.C.1 The concept of a limit includes one sided limits.
- LIM-1.C.2 Graphical information about a function can be used to estimate limits.
- LIM-1.C.3 Because of issues of scale, graphical representations of functions may miss important function behavior.
- LIM-1.C.4 A limit might not exist for some functions at particular values of $x$. Some ways that the limit might not exist are if the function is unbounded, if the function is oscillating near this value, or if the limit from the left does not equal the limit from the right.
- Illustrative examples for LIM-1.C.4:
- $\lim_{x \to 0} \dfrac{1}{x^2} = \infty$
- $\lim_{x \to 0} \dfrac{|x|}{x}$ does not exist.
- $\lim_{x \to 0} \sin\left(\dfrac{1}{x}\right)$ does not exist.
- $\lim_{x \to 0} \dfrac{1}{x}$ does not exist.
- Illustrative examples for LIM-1.C.4:
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
一个图象常常是读一个极限最快的方式。要求 $\displaystyle \lim_{x \to c} f(x)$,沿着曲线从每一侧朝 $x = c$ 运行你的手指并问:曲线正朝什么高度前进?
- 从左追踪(小于 $c$ 的输入):这给出左极限(left-hand limit),$\displaystyle \lim_{x \to c^-} f(x)$。
- 从右追踪(大于 $c$ 的输入):这给出右极限(right-hand limit),$\displaystyle \lim_{x \to c^+} f(x)$。
- 这些是单侧极限(one-sided limits)。若两者都朝相同的高度 $R$,那么双侧极限存在且 $\displaystyle \lim_{x \to c} f(x) = R$。
关键地,忽略点本身。图象标出极限和值之间的差别:
- 一个空心圆(open circle)标出曲线趋近但不到达的一个高度——一个"空洞"(hole)。
- 一个实心圆(closed circle)标出实际的值 $f(c)$。
所以一条曲线可能从两侧都趋近 $R = 3$(极限是 $3$),而一个实心点坐在高度 $5$($f(c) = 5$)。极限是 $3$;两者不必匹配。
一个极限不存在(常写作 DNE),当两侧不一致(一个跳跃(jump))、当函数是无界(unbounded)的(无极限地增长),或当它在 $c$ 附近永远振荡(oscillates)时。例如:
$$\lim_{x \to 0} \frac{1}{x^2} = \infty, \qquad \lim_{x \to 0} \frac{|x|}{x}\ \text{DNE}, \qquad \lim_{x \to 0} \sin\!\left(\frac{1}{x}\right)\ \text{DNE}.$$注意一个图象的比例(scale):一张缩小的图片能隐藏一个点附近重要的行为,所以当你能够时用代数确认。
探索Read a limit off the graph
y = ax² + bx + c
The limit as $x\to c$ is the height the curve heads toward from both sides — it is about where the function is going, not its value at $c$. Follow the curve toward an $x$ and read the $y$ it approaches.
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 left-hand limit 左极限 zuǒ jí xiàn right-hand limit 右极限 yòu jí xiàn one-sided limits 单侧极限 dān cè jí xiàn open circle 空心圆 kōng xīn yuán hole 空洞 kōng dòng closed circle 实心圆 shí xīn yuán jump 跳跃 tiào yuè unbounded 无界 wú jiè oscillates 振荡 zhèn dàng scale 比例 bǐ lì 1.4
从表格估计极限值
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Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge LIM-1
Reasoning with definitions, theorems, and properties can be used to justify claims about limits.LIM-1.C
Estimate limits of functions.- LIM-1.C.5 Numerical information can be used to estimate limits.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
当你有数据或一个公式但没有图片时,一张值的表格(table)在数值上估计一个极限。选择从两侧向 $c$ 逼近的输入并观察输出。
例如,要估计 $\displaystyle \lim_{x \to 2} \frac{x^2 - 4}{x - 2}$(它在 $x=2$ 处是 $\tfrac{0}{0}$):
$x$ $1.9$ $1.99$ $1.999$ $\to 2 \leftarrow$ $2.001$ $2.01$ $2.1$ $f(x)$ $3.9$ $3.99$ $3.999$ ? $4.001$ $4.01$ $4.1$ 两侧都朝 $4$ 行进,所以我们估计极限是 $4$。一张表只暗示一个值——它是一个数值估计,不是一个证明。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 table 表格 biǎo gé 1.5
利用极限的代数性质求极限
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Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge LIM-1
Reasoning with definitions, theorems, and properties can be used to justify claims about limits.LIM-1.D
Determine the limits of functions using limit theorems.- LIM-1.D.1 One-sided limits can be determined analytically or graphically.
- LIM-1.D.2 Limits of sums, differences, products, quotients, and composite functions can be found using limit theorems.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
大多数极限用极限定理(limit theorems)解析地求出。若 $\lim_{x\to c} f(x)$ 和 $\lim_{x\to c} g(x)$ 都存在,一个组合的极限是这些极限的相同组合:
- 和 / 差: $\displaystyle \lim_{x\to c}\big[f(x)\pm g(x)\big] = \lim_{x\to c}f(x) \pm \lim_{x\to c}g(x)$
- 积: $\displaystyle \lim_{x\to c}\big[f(x)\,g(x)\big] = \lim_{x\to c}f(x)\cdot\lim_{x\to c}g(x)$
- 商: $\displaystyle \lim_{x\to c}\frac{f(x)}{g(x)} = \frac{\lim_{x\to c}f(x)}{\lim_{x\to c}g(x)}$,只要底部极限不是 $0$。
- 复合函数(composite):若 $g$ 在 $\lim_{x\to c} f(x)$ 处连续,那么 $\displaystyle \lim_{x\to c} g\big(f(x)\big) = g\!\left(\lim_{x\to c} f(x)\right)$。
实用的规则:对于一个由多项式、根式等构建的函数,先尝试直接代入(direct substitution)——把 $x = c$ 代进去。若你得到一个实数,那就是极限。单侧极限遵循相同的定理,只从一个方向读。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 limit theorems 极限定理 jí xiàn dìng lǐ Composite 复合函数 fù hé hán shù direct substitution 直接代入 zhí jiē dài rù 1.6
利用代数变形求极限
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Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge LIM-1
Reasoning with definitions, theorems, and properties can be used to justify claims about limits.LIM-1.E
Determine the limits of functions using equivalent expressions for the function or the squeeze theorem.- LIM-1.E.1 It may be necessary or helpful to rearrange expressions into equivalent forms before evaluating limits.
- Illustrative examples for LIM-1.E.1:
- Factoring and dividing common factors of rational functions
- Multiplying by an expression involving the conjugate of a sum or difference in order to simplify functions involving radicals
- Using alternate forms of trigonometric functions
- Illustrative examples for LIM-1.E.1:
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
直接代入有时给出未定式(indeterminate form)$\tfrac{0}{0}$。这不意味着极限失败——它意味着你必须把函数重写成一个去除麻烦的等价形式(equivalent form),然后代入。三个标准的做法:
- 因式分解并约分(factor and cancel)一个有理函数(rational function)。例:$\displaystyle \lim_{x\to 2}\frac{x^2-4}{x-2} = \lim_{x\to 2}\frac{(x-2)(x+2)}{x-2} = \lim_{x\to 2}(x+2) = 4$。
- 乘以共轭(conjugate)以化简一个根式(radical)。例:$\displaystyle \lim_{x\to 0}\frac{\sqrt{x+1}-1}{x} = \lim_{x\to 0}\frac{x}{x\big(\sqrt{x+1}+1\big)} = \frac{1}{2}$。
- 使用三角函数的替代形式(恒等式)来化简。
约去的因子是为什么原来的图象有一个空洞:这两个函数除了在 $x=c$ 处都一致,所以它们在那里共享相同的极限。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 indeterminate form 未定式 wèi dìng shì equivalent form 等价形式 děng jià xíng shì Factor and cancel 因式分解并约分 yīn shì fēn jiě bìng yuē fēn rational function 有理函数 yǒu lǐ hán shù conjugate 共轭 gòng è radical 根式 gēn shì 1.7
选择求极限的方法
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This topic is intended to focus on the skill of selecting an appropriate procedure for determining limits. Students should be given opportunities to practice when and how to apply all learning objectives relating to determining limits.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
这是一个技能主题,不是新内容:为你面前的极限选择正确的工具。
- 先尝试直接代入。 一个实数答案意味着你完成了。
- 得到 $\tfrac{0}{0}$?重写——因式分解并约分,或用共轭,或一个三角恒等式——然后代入。
- 一个非零数除以 $0$(像 $\tfrac{5}{0}$)?极限是无穷的或 DNE ——从每一侧检查符号(见下面的垂直渐近线)。
- 当 $x\to\pm\infty$?比较主导(dominant)项(见无穷远处的极限)。
- 被困在两个函数之间?夹逼定理(squeeze theorem)可能适用。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 dominant 主导 zhǔ dǎo squeeze theorem 夹逼定理 jiā bī dìng lǐ 1.8
利用夹逼定理求极限
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Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge LIM-1
Reasoning with definitions, theorems, and properties can be used to justify claims about limits.LIM-1.E
Determine the limits of functions using equivalent expressions for the function or the squeeze theorem.- LIM-1.E.2 The limit of a function may be found by using the squeeze theorem.
- Illustrative examples for LIM-1.E.2: The squeeze theorem can be used to show $\lim_{x \to 0} \dfrac{\sin x}{x} = 1$ and $\lim_{x \to 0} \dfrac{1 - \cos x}{x} = 0$.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
夹逼定理(squeeze theorem)(也叫三明治定理)通过把函数困在另外两个之间来求一个极限。若在 $c$ 附近 $g(x) \le f(x) \le h(x)$,而
$$\lim_{x\to c} g(x) = \lim_{x\to c} h(x) = L,$$那么 $f$ 被挤到相同的地方:$\displaystyle \lim_{x\to c} f(x) = L$。以这种方式证明的两个著名结果,两者都贯穿微积分使用,是:
$$\lim_{x\to 0}\frac{\sin x}{x} = 1 \qquad\text{and}\qquad \lim_{x\to 0}\frac{1-\cos x}{x} = 0.$$
夹逼定理把 x 平方 sin(1/x) 困在负 x 平方和 x 平方之间 1.9
联系极限的多种表示
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This topic is intended to focus on connecting representations. Students should be given opportunities to practice when and how to apply all learning objectives relating to limits and translating mathematical information from a single representation or across multiple representations.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
另一个技能主题:同一个极限存在于一个图象、一张表和一个代数形式里,而你应当能够在它们之间转换。一个图象显示形状和任何空洞或跳跃;一张表给出数值证据;代数给出一个精确的值和一个理由。强的答案用一种表示去确认另一种。
1.10
探究间断点的类型
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Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge LIM-2
Reasoning with definitions, theorems, and properties can be used to justify claims about continuity.LIM-2.A
Justify conclusions about continuity at a point using the definition.- LIM-2.A.1 Types of discontinuities include removable discontinuities, jump discontinuities, and discontinuities due to vertical asymptotes.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
一个函数在 $c$ 处间断(discontinuous),当它的图象在那里"断裂"时。有三种类型:
- 可去间断(removable discontinuity)——一个单一的空洞。双侧极限存在,但点缺失或错位。
- 跳跃间断(jump discontinuity)——两个单侧极限存在但不一致,所以曲线跳跃。
- 无穷间断(infinite discontinuity)——函数在一条垂直渐近线(vertical asymptote)处爆炸到 $\pm\infty$。

三种间断类型:可去、跳跃和无穷 词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 discontinuous 间断 jiàn duàn Removable discontinuity 可去间断 kě qù jiàn duàn Jump discontinuity 跳跃间断 tiào yuè jiàn duàn Infinite discontinuity 无穷间断 wú qióng jiàn duàn vertical asymptote 垂直渐近线 chuí zhí jiàn jìn xiàn continuous 连续 lián xù 1.11
定义在某点的连续性
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Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge LIM-2
Reasoning with definitions, theorems, and properties can be used to justify claims about continuity.LIM-2.A
Justify conclusions about continuity at a point using the definition.- LIM-2.A.2 A function $f$ is continuous at $x = c$ provided that $f(c)$ exists, $\lim_{x \to c} f(x)$ exists, and $\lim_{x \to c} f(x) = f(c)$.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
连续性由一个三部分测试定义。一个函数 $f$ 在 $x=c$ 处连续(continuous),恰好当所有三个都成立时:
$$\boxed{\;f(c)\text{ exists}\quad\text{and}\quad \lim_{x\to c} f(x)\text{ exists}\quad\text{and}\quad \lim_{x\to c} f(x) = f(c)\;}$$用文字说:点在那里、极限在那里,而两者一致。若任何一个失败,$f$ 在 $c$ 处间断。这个测试是几乎每个连续性问题的支柱,所以把它作为一个检查清单来学。
1.12
确认区间上的连续性
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Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge LIM-2
Reasoning with definitions, theorems, and properties can be used to justify claims about continuity.LIM-2.B
Determine intervals over which a function is continuous.- LIM-2.B.1 A function is continuous on an interval if the function is continuous at each point in the interval.
- LIM-2.B.2 Polynomial, rational, power, exponential, logarithmic, and trigonometric functions are continuous on all points in their domains.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
一个函数在区间上连续(continuous on an interval),若它在那个区间的每个点都连续。你很少逐点检查,因为整个族在它们的定义域上连续:
多项式、有理、幂、指数(exponential)、对数(logarithmic),和三角(trigonometric)函数在它们定义域的每个点都连续。
所以一个有理函数处处连续,除了它的分母是零的地方;$\ln x$ 对 $x>0$ 连续;等等。知道这个让你能快速而正确地声明连续性。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 continuous on an interval 在区间上连续 zài qū jiān shàng lián xù exponential 指数 zhǐ shù logarithmic 对数 duì shù trigonometric 三角 sān jiǎo 1.13
消除间断点
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Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge LIM-2
Reasoning with definitions, theorems, and properties can be used to justify claims about continuity.LIM-2.C
Determine values of $x$ or solve for parameters that make discontinuous functions continuous, if possible.- LIM-2.C.1 If the limit of a function exists at a discontinuity in its graph, then it is possible to remove the discontinuity by defining or redefining the value of the function at that point, so it equals the value of the limit of the function as $x$ approaches that point.
- LIM-2.C.2 In order for a piecewise-defined function to be continuous at a boundary to the partition of its domain, the value of the expression defining the function on one side of the boundary must equal the value of the expression defining the other side of the boundary, as well as the value of the function at the boundary.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
若极限在一个空洞处存在,间断是可去的(removable):在那一个点重新定义函数使它等于极限,而图象就被修复。形式上,把缺失的值设为 $\displaystyle \lim_{x\to c} f(x)$。
对于一个分段函数(piecewise-defined function),在一个边界 $x=c$ 处的连续性需要两段相遇:左段的值、右段的值,和 $f(c)$ 必须都相等。这是一个常见的考试设置——你求解一个使两段匹配的参数(parameter)(一个未知常数):
$$\lim_{x\to c^-} f(x) = \lim_{x\to c^+} f(x) = f(c).$$词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 piecewise-defined function 分段函数 fēn duàn hán shù parameter 参数 cān shù 1.14
联系无穷极限与竖直渐近线
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Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge LIM-2
Reasoning with definitions, theorems, and properties can be used to justify claims about continuity.LIM-2.D
Interpret the behavior of functions using limits involving infinity.- LIM-2.D.1 The concept of a limit can be extended to include infinite limits.
- LIM-2.D.2 Asymptotic and unbounded behavior of functions can be described and explained using limits.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
极限的思想延伸到无穷极限(infinite limits)。当一个函数在 $x=c$ 附近无界地增长时,我们写 $\lim_{x\to c} f(x) = \pm\infty$。这描述在 $x=c$ 处的一条垂直渐近线:图象紧贴垂直线 $x=c$ 并朝 $\pm\infty$ 射出。
这发生在一个非零数被某个趋近 $0$ 的东西除的地方,例如在一个不约去的分母的零点处。总是分别检查每一侧——两侧能射向相反的方向(一个到 $+\infty$,一个到 $-\infty$)。
探索Explore an infinite limit at a vertical asymptote
y = a/(x − b) + c
As $x \to 0$ the curve $y=\frac{1}{x}$ shoots to $+\infty$ from the right and $-\infty$ from the left — the line $x=0$ is a vertical asymptote the graph hugs but never touches.
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 infinite limits 无穷极限 wú qióng jí xiàn 1.15
联系无穷远处的极限与水平渐近线
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge LIM-2
Reasoning with definitions, theorems, and properties can be used to justify claims about continuity.LIM-2.D
Interpret the behavior of functions using limits involving infinity.- LIM-2.D.3 The concept of a limit can be extended to include limits at infinity.
- LIM-2.D.4 Limits at infinity describe end behavior.
- LIM-2.D.5 Relative magnitudes of functions and their rates of change can be compared using limits.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
我们也能让输入增长:无穷远处的极限(limits at infinity)描述一个函数当 $x\to\pm\infty$ 时的末端行为(end behavior)。若输出朝一个有限值 $L$ 稳定,那么 $y=L$ 是一条水平渐近线(horizontal asymptote)。
对于一个有理函数,比较上部和底部的次数(degrees):
- 上部次数 < 底部次数 $\Rightarrow$ 极限是 $0$(渐近线 $y=0$);
- 上部次数 = 底部次数 $\Rightarrow$ 极限是首项系数之比(ratio of the leading coefficients);
- 上部次数 > 底部次数 $\Rightarrow$ 函数是无界的(没有水平渐近线)。
更一般地,我们比较函数的相对大小(relative magnitudes)(相对增长率):在远处,一个指数击败任何多项式,而一个多项式击败任何对数。在考试上,"当 $t\to\infty$ 时,哪个量更大/率在哪里稳定?"用一个无穷远处的极限回答。

无穷远处的一个极限产生一条水平渐近线 探索Explore end behavior and a horizontal asymptote
y = a/(x − b) + c
Far out to the left and right the curve levels off toward $y=\mathbf{c}$ — that is $\lim_{x\to\pm\infty}f(x)$, the horizontal asymptote. Change $\mathbf{c}$ to move the level it settles at.
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 limits at infinity 无穷远处的极限 wú qióng yuǎn chù de jí xiàn end behavior 末端行为 mò duān xíng wéi horizontal asymptote 水平渐近线 shuǐ píng jiàn jìn xiàn degrees 次数 cì shù ratio of the leading coefficients 首项系数之比 shǒu xiàng xì shù zhī bǐ relative magnitudes 相对大小 xiāng duì dà xiǎo 1.16
运用介值定理(IVT)
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge FUN-1
Existence theorems allow us to draw conclusions about a function's behavior on an interval without precisely locating that behavior.FUN-1.A
Explain the behavior of a function on an interval using the Intermediate Value Theorem.- FUN-1.A.1 If $f$ is a continuous function on the closed interval $[a, b]$ and $d$ is a number between $f(a)$ and $f(b)$, then the Intermediate Value Theorem guarantees that there is at least one number $c$ between $a$ and $b$, such that $f(c) = d$.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
介值定理(Intermediate Value Theorem)是一个存在性定理(existence theorem)——它保证一个值存在而不告诉你在哪里:

f(a) 和 f(b) 的相反符号把一个根困在 a 和 b 之间 若 $f$ 在闭区间 $[a,b]$ 上连续,而 $d$ 是 $f(a)$ 和 $f(b)$ 之间的任何数,那么在 $(a,b)$ 里有至少一个数 $c$ 满足 $f(c)=d$。
一条不断裂的曲线不能跳过它端点之间的一个高度——它必须通过每一个。
考试技能——如何用 IVT 论证。 这些问题几乎每年出现(例如,"必然有一个值 $c$ 满足 $R(c)=155$ 吗?"或"有一个时刻 $r'(t)=-6$ 吗?")。一个满分的论证有三个动作:
- 陈述连续性。 说函数在 $[a,b]$ 上连续(常常因为它可微,或给定连续)。
- 显示 $d$ 被困住。 计算两个端点值并显示目标 $d$ 位于它们之间,例如 $f(a) < d < f(b)$。
- 按名称下结论。 "由介值定理,在 $(a,b)$ 里有一个 $c$ 满足 $f(c)=d$。"
跳过连续性陈述,或不显示 $d$ 在端点之间,会失分——定理要求两个条件。
Worked example. 求 $\lim_{x\to\infty}\dfrac{3x^2-5}{2x^2+x}$。把分子分母都除以最高次幂 $x^2$:$\dfrac{3-5/x^2}{2+1/x}\to\dfrac{3-0}{2+0}=\dfrac{3}{2}$。因为极限是一个有限数,直线 $y=\tfrac{3}{2}$ 是图像的一条水平渐近线。
探索Why a continuous curve can't skip a value
y = ax³ + bx² + cx + d
The Intermediate Value Theorem: a function continuous on $[a,b]$ takes every $y$ between $f(a)$ and $f(b)$ at some point inside. An unbroken curve cannot leap over a height — it must pass through it.
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Intermediate Value Theorem 介值定理 jiè zhí dìng lǐ existence theorem 存在性定理 cún zài xìng dìng lǐ 1.16
考试技巧
- 一个极限描述 $f(x)$ 趋近什么,它不必等于 $f(a)$ ——只有当两侧一致时双侧极限才存在。
- 先尝试直接代入;对于一个 $\tfrac00$ 形式,在代入之前因式分解并约分或有理化。
- 一个函数在 $a$ 处连续,当极限存在、$f(a)$ 有定义,而它们相等时。
- 用介值定理来保证一个根:一个在 $[a,b]$ 上改变符号的连续函数取中间的每个值。
- 从末端行为(在 $\pm\infty$ 处的极限)读水平渐近线,而在分母(不是分子)是零的地方读垂直渐近线。
-
2
微分:定义与基本性质
2.1
定义某点的平均变化率与瞬时变化率
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge CHA-2
Derivatives allow us to determine rates of change at an instant by applying limits to knowledge about rates of change over intervals.CHA-2.A
Determine average rates of change using difference quotients.- CHA-2.A.1 The difference quotients $\dfrac{f(a+h)-f(a)}{h}$ and $\dfrac{f(x)-f(a)}{x-a}$ express the average rate of change of a function over an interval.
CHA-2.B
Represent the derivative of a function as the limit of a difference quotient.- CHA-2.B.1 The instantaneous rate of change of a function at $x=a$ can be expressed by $\lim\limits_{h\to 0}\dfrac{f(a+h)-f(a)}{h}$ or $\lim\limits_{x\to a}\dfrac{f(x)-f(a)}{x-a}$, provided the limit exists. These are equivalent forms of the definition of the derivative and are denoted $f'(a)$.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
导数的定义 第 1 单元构建了极限。第 2 单元用它来定义导数(derivative)——一个点处的精确变化率。

瞬时变化率是一个点处切线的斜率 在一个区间上,平均变化率是一个差商(difference quotient)。两个等价的形式出现:
$$\frac{f(a+h)-f(a)}{h} \qquad\text{and}\qquad \frac{f(x)-f(a)}{x-a}.$$第一个用从 $a$ 的一个大小为 $h$ 的步长;第二个用两个点 $x$ 和 $a$。两者都在区间上计算 $\dfrac{\text{change in output}}{\text{change in input}}$。$x=a$ 处的瞬时(instantaneous)变化率是随着区间收缩到零,差商所趋近的。这个极限就是 $a$ 处的导数,写作 $f'(a)$:
$$f'(a) = \lim_{h\to 0}\frac{f(a+h)-f(a)}{h} = \lim_{x\to a}\frac{f(x)-f(a)}{x-a},$$只要极限存在。探索From average rate to instantaneous rate
y = ax³ + bx² + cx + d
Slide the point: the secant through two nearby points tips toward the tangent as they merge. The tangent's slope is the derivative — the instantaneous rate of change.
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 derivative 导数 dǎo shù difference quotient 差商 chà shāng instantaneous 瞬时 shùn shí first principles 用定义求导 yòng dìng yì qiú dǎo 2.2
定义函数的导数与使用导数记号
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge CHA-2
Derivatives allow us to determine rates of change at an instant by applying limits to knowledge about rates of change over intervals.CHA-2.B
Represent the derivative of a function as the limit of a difference quotient.- CHA-2.B.2 The derivative of $f$ is the function whose value at $x$ is $\lim\limits_{h\to 0}\dfrac{f(x+h)-f(x)}{h}$, provided this limit exists.
- CHA-2.B.3 For $y=f(x)$, notations for the derivative include $\dfrac{dy}{dx}$, $f'(x)$, and $y'$.
- CHA-2.B.4 The derivative can be represented graphically, numerically, analytically, and verbally.
CHA-2.C
Determine the equation of a line tangent to a curve at a given point.- CHA-2.C.1 The derivative of a function at a point is the slope of the line tangent to a graph of the function at that point.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
让点 $a$ 变化,导数就变成一个新函数:
$$f'(x) = \lim_{h\to 0}\frac{f(x+h)-f(x)}{h}.$$这是导数的定义(有时叫"用定义求导"(by first principles))。它在每个 $x$ 处的值是那里的瞬时变化率。$y=f(x)$ 导数的常见记号(notations)是:
$$\frac{dy}{dx}, \qquad f'(x), \qquad y'.$$导数能用图象、数值、解析式和文字表示——准备好在它们之间移动。几何意义。 一个点处的导数是那里图象的切线(tangent line)的斜率(slope)。所以 $x=a$ 处的切线通过 $\big(a, f(a)\big)$,斜率为 $f'(a)$:
$$y - f(a) = f'(a)\,(x-a).$$写这条线是一个常规的考试任务,所以把点斜式准备好。
割线斜率趋近切线斜率:导数是平均率的极限 词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 notations 记号 jì hào slope 斜率 xié lǜ tangent line 切线 qiè xiàn 2.3
估计函数在某点的导数
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge CHA-2
Derivatives allow us to determine rates of change at an instant by applying limits to knowledge about rates of change over intervals.CHA-2.D
Estimate derivatives.- CHA-2.D.1 The derivative at a point can be estimated from information given in tables or graphs.
- CHA-2.D.2 Technology can be used to calculate or estimate the value of a derivative of a function at a point.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
你不总是有一个公式。当一个函数由一张表格(table)或一个图象给出时,用在 $a$ 周围一个小区间上的一个差商估计导数 $f'(a)$。一张在 $a$ 两侧都有值的表给出最好的估计:
$$f'(a) \approx \frac{f(b)-f(c)}{b-c},\qquad \text{where } c < a < b \text{ are the closest table inputs}.$$技术(一个计算器)也能估计一个点处的一个导数。考试技能(几乎每年出现)。 像"用 $M$ 在区间 $5 \le t \le 10$ 上的平均变化率近似 $M'(7.5)$"这样的问题正是要求这个差商。展示设置:
$$M'(7.5) \approx \frac{M(10)-M(5)}{10-5}.$$满分需要代入数字和正确的单位(units)(每输入单位的输出单位),因为这些来自现实世界的模型。词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 table 表格 biǎo gé units 单位 dān wèi 2.4
联系可微性与连续性:判断导数何时存在与不存在
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge FUN-2
Recognizing that a function's derivative may also be a function allows us to develop knowledge about the related behaviors of both.FUN-2.A
Explain the relationship between differentiability and continuity.- FUN-2.A.1 If a function is differentiable at a point, then it is continuous at that point. In particular, if a point is not in the domain of $f$, then it is not in the domain of $f'$.
- FUN-2.A.2 A continuous function may fail to be differentiable at a point in its domain.
- Illustrative examples for FUN-2.A.2:
- The left hand and right hand limits of the difference quotient are not equal, as in $f(x)=|x|$ at $x=0$.
- The tangent line is vertical and has no slope, as in $f(x)=\sqrt[3]{x}$ at $x=0$.
- Illustrative examples for FUN-2.A.2:
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
可导性比连续性更强。关键的关系:
若 $f$ 在一个点可导**(differentiable),那么 $f$ 在那里连续(continuous)。**
所以可导性蕴含连续性。反过来是假的:一个连续函数可以不可导。这发生的两种方式:
- 一个尖点(corner):左和右的差商极限不一致,如 $f(x)=|x|$ 在 $x=0$ 处。
- 一条垂直切线(vertical tangent):斜率是无穷的(没有实数),如 $f(x)=\sqrt[3]{x}$ 在 $x=0$ 处。

一个连续函数不可导的两种方式:一个尖点和一条垂直切线 而且,$f$ 定义域之外的一个点不能在 $f'$ 的定义域里。在考试上用逆否命题:若 $f$ 在 $a$ 处不连续,那么 $f$ 在 $a$ 处不可导。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 differentiable 可导 kě dǎo continuous 连续 lián xù corner 尖点 jiān diǎn vertical tangent 垂直切线 chuí zhí qiè xiàn 2.5
应用幂法则
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge FUN-3
Recognizing opportunities to apply derivative rules can simplify differentiation.FUN-3.A
Calculate derivatives of familiar functions.- FUN-3.A.1 Direct application of the definition of the derivative and specific rules can be used to calculate the derivative for functions of the form $f(x)=x^{r}$.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
从这里我们每次用规则代替极限定义。幂法则(power rule)处理 $x$ 的任何幂:
$$\frac{d}{dx}\,x^{r} = r\,x^{\,r-1}\qquad\text{for any real } r.$$它对整数幂、负幂($\tfrac{1}{x}=x^{-1}$)和根式($\sqrt{x}=x^{1/2}$)都起作用——先重写为一个幂,然后应用规则。探索A power function and its steepening slope
y = ax³ + bx² + cx + d
The power rule $\frac{d}{dx}x^n = nx^{n-1}$ drops the exponent as a factor. For $x^3$ the slope grows quickly as $x$ leaves 0 — the curve steepens.
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 power rule 幂法则 mì fǎ zé 2.6
导数法则:常数、和、差与常数倍
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge FUN-3
Recognizing opportunities to apply derivative rules can simplify differentiation.FUN-3.A
Calculate derivatives of familiar functions.- FUN-3.A.2 Sums, differences, and constant multiples of functions can be differentiated using derivative rules.
- FUN-3.A.3 The power rule combined with sum, difference, and constant multiple properties can be used to find the derivatives for polynomial functions.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
这些规则让你逐项求导:
- 常数: $\dfrac{d}{dx}\,k = 0$(一个常数不变化)。
- 常数倍(constant multiple): $\dfrac{d}{dx}\big[k\,f(x)\big] = k\,f'(x)$。
- 和 / 差: $\dfrac{d}{dx}\big[f(x)\pm g(x)\big] = f'(x)\pm g'(x)$。
与幂法则结合,它们逐项求导任何多项式(polynomial)。例:
$$\frac{d}{dx}\big(4x^3 - 5x + 7\big) = 12x^2 - 5.$$词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Constant multiple 常数倍 cháng shù bèi polynomial 多项式 duō xiàng shì 2.7
cos x、sin x、e^x 与 ln x 的导数
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge FUN-3
Recognizing opportunities to apply derivative rules can simplify differentiation.FUN-3.A
Calculate derivatives of familiar functions.- FUN-3.A.4 Specific rules can be used to find the derivatives for sine, cosine, exponential, and logarithmic functions.
LIM-3
Reasoning with definitions, theorems, and properties can be used to determine a limit.LIM-3.A
Interpret a limit as a definition of a derivative.- LIM-3.A.1 In some cases, recognizing an expression for the definition of the derivative of a function whose derivative is known offers a strategy for determining a limit.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
把这四个构建块导数记住:
$$\frac{d}{dx}\sin x = \cos x, \qquad \frac{d}{dx}\cos x = -\sin x,$$$$\frac{d}{dx}e^{x} = e^{x}, \qquad \frac{d}{dx}\ln x = \frac{1}{x}\ \ (x>0).$$注意余弦导数上的负号,以及 $e^{x}$ 是它自己的导数。一个真的是一个导数的极限(LIM-3.A.1)。 有时一个极限秘密地是一个已知导数的定义。若你认出
$$\lim_{h\to 0}\frac{f(a+h)-f(a)}{h}$$对于一个你知道导数的函数 $f$,只需求 $f'(a)$。例如,$\displaystyle \lim_{h\to 0}\frac{\sin\!\big(\tfrac{\pi}{2}+h\big)-1}{h} = \left.\frac{d}{dx}\sin x\right|_{x=\pi/2} = \cos\tfrac{\pi}{2} = 0$。探索The shape of sin x (whose slope is cos x)
y = asin(bx + c) + d
The derivative of $\sin x$ is $\cos x$: the slope of the sine curve is largest where sine crosses zero and zero at its peaks. Watch the curve to feel where its slope is steep or flat.
2.8
乘积法则
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge FUN-3
Recognizing opportunities to apply derivative rules can simplify differentiation.FUN-3.B
Calculate derivatives of products and quotients of differentiable functions.- FUN-3.B.1 Derivatives of products of differentiable functions can be found using the product rule.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
两个函数的一个乘积不通过把导数相乘来求导。用乘积法则(product rule):
$$\frac{d}{dx}\big[u\,v\big] = u'v + uv'.$$"第一个的导数乘第二个,加第一个乘第二个的导数。"例:$$\frac{d}{dx}\big(x^2 e^{x}\big) = 2x\,e^{x} + x^2 e^{x}.$$考试问题常常从给定的片段构建一个新函数,例如 $k'(x) = \big(f(x)\big)^2 g(x)$,并要求你在从一张表读值的同时组合规则。词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 product rule 乘积法则 chéng jī fǎ zé 2.9
商法则
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge FUN-3
Recognizing opportunities to apply derivative rules can simplify differentiation.FUN-3.B
Calculate derivatives of products and quotients of differentiable functions.- FUN-3.B.2 Derivatives of quotients of differentiable functions can be found using the quotient rule.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
对于一个商,用商法则(quotient rule):
$$\frac{d}{dx}\!\left[\frac{u}{v}\right] = \frac{u'v - uv'}{v^{2}}.$$"底部乘顶部的导数,减顶部乘底部的导数,全都除以底部的平方。"因为负号顺序重要,所以仔细地写分子。例:$$\frac{d}{dx}\!\left(\frac{x}{\cos x}\right) = \frac{1\cdot\cos x - x\cdot(-\sin x)}{\cos^2 x} = \frac{\cos x + x\sin x}{\cos^2 x}.$$词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 quotient rule 商法则 shāng fǎ zé 2.10
求正切、余切、正割与余割函数的导数
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge FUN-3
Recognizing opportunities to apply derivative rules can simplify differentiation.FUN-3.B
Calculate derivatives of products and quotients of differentiable functions.- FUN-3.B.3 Rearranging tangent, cotangent, secant, and cosecant functions using identities allows differentiation using derivative rules.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
其余的三角导数不被分别记忆——你用恒等式(identities)重写它们并应用商(或乘积)法则。例如,$\tan x = \dfrac{\sin x}{\cos x}$,所以商法则给出
$$\frac{d}{dx}\tan x = \frac{\cos x\cos x - \sin x(-\sin x)}{\cos^2 x} = \frac{1}{\cos^2 x} = \sec^2 x.$$相同的方法(写 $\cot x=\tfrac{\cos x}{\sin x}$、$\sec x=\tfrac{1}{\cos x}$、$\csc x=\tfrac{1}{\sin x}$)给出 $-\csc^2 x$、$\sec x\tan x$ 和 $-\csc x\cot x$。高阶导数。 再次对 $f'$ 求导给出二阶导数(second derivative)$f''(x)$(或 $\tfrac{d^2y}{dx^2}$)——变化率的变化率。一个像"求 $k''(3)$"的考试部分只意味着求导两次,然后代入。你也能通过把平均变化率方法应用于 $f'$ 值来从一张表估计一个二阶导数。
Worked example. 用商法则 $\left(\tfrac{u}{v}\right)'=\dfrac{u'v-uv'}{v^2}$ 求 $g(x)=\dfrac{\sin x}{x}$ 的导数:取 $u=\sin x$,$v=x$,得 $g'(x)=\dfrac{x\cos x-\sin x}{x^2}$。分子里保持顺序 $u'v-uv'$——交换这两项会翻转符号并丢分。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 identities 恒等式 héng děng shì second derivative 二阶导数 èr jiē dǎo shù 2.10
考试技巧
- 导数是切线的斜率——随着 $h\to0$ 割线斜率 $\tfrac{f(x+h)-f(x)}{h}$ 的极限。
- 记住规则:幂、乘积、商,以及 $\sin$、$\cos$、$e^x$ 和 $\ln x$ 的导数。
- 可导性蕴含连续性,但反之不然(一个尖点或尖角连续但不可导)。
- 区分平均变化率(一个区间上的割线斜率)和瞬时率(一个点处的导数)。
- 把一个切线方程给成 $y-f(a)=f'(a)(x-a)$。
-
3
微分:复合、隐式与反函数
3.1
链式法则
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge FUN-3
Recognizing opportunities to apply derivative rules can simplify differentiation.FUN-3.C
Calculate derivatives of compositions of differentiable functions.- FUN-3.C.1 The chain rule provides a way to differentiate composite functions.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
链式法则 第 2 单元求导单个函数。第 3 单元求导构建在其他函数里面的函数。链式法则(chain rule)求导一个复合函数(composite function)$f\big(g(x)\big)$:
$$\frac{d}{dx}\,f\big(g(x)\big) = f'\big(g(x)\big)\cdot g'(x).$$"外函数的导数(保持里面不动),乘里面的导数。"内部导数 $g'(x)$ 是学生忘记的那一块,所以总是问"里面是什么,而它的导数是什么?"例:$$\frac{d}{dx}\sin(x^2) = \cos(x^2)\cdot 2x.$$在莱布尼茨记号里,以 $y=f(u)$ 和 $u=g(x)$,规则读作 $\dfrac{dy}{dx}=\dfrac{dy}{du}\cdot\dfrac{du}{dx}$ ——中间的 $du$ 看起来"约去"。考试问题常常给出 $f$、$g$、$f'$、$g'$ 的一张表并要求 $h'(a)$,其中 $h(x)=f\big(g(x)\big)$;通过读值求 $f'\big(g(a)\big)\cdot g'(a)$。
Worked example. 求导 $h(x)=(2x^2+1)^5$。外函数是"(某物)$^5$"而里面是 $2x^2+1$:
$$h'(x)=5(2x^2+1)^4\cdot 4x=20x(2x^2+1)^4.$$词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 chain rule 链式法则 liàn shì fǎ zé composite function 复合函数 fù hé hán shù 3.2
隐函数求导
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge FUN-3
Recognizing opportunities to apply derivative rules can simplify differentiation.FUN-3.D
Calculate derivatives of implicitly defined functions.- FUN-3.D.1 The chain rule is the basis for implicit differentiation.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
一些曲线被隐式地定义——由一个 $x$ 和 $y$ 的、没有解出 $y$ 的方程,例如 $x^2+y^2=25$。隐函数求导(implicit differentiation)在不先解出 $y$ 的情况下求 $\dfrac{dy}{dx}$。它就是链式法则,把 $y$ 当作 $x$ 的一个函数。
方法:对 $x$ 求导两侧;每次你求导一个 $y$ 项时,乘以 $\dfrac{dy}{dx}$(链式法则);然后代数地解 $\dfrac{dy}{dx}$。对于 $x^2+y^2=25$:
$$2x + 2y\frac{dy}{dx}=0 \;\Longrightarrow\; \frac{dy}{dx} = -\frac{x}{y}.$$Worked example. 求 $x^2+y^2=25$ 在 $(3,4)$ 处的切线。这里 $\dfrac{dy}{dx}=-\dfrac{3}{4}$,所以切线是 $y-4=-\tfrac{3}{4}(x-3)$ ——垂直于半径,正如几何所预测。

隐函数求导给出一个圆的切线,垂直于半径 考试技能——"证明 $\dfrac{dy}{dx}=\ldots$"。 这个确切的提示大多数年份出现(例如"证明 $\dfrac{dy}{dx}=\dfrac{2y}{y^2-2x}$")。因为目标被给出,你必须干净地显示每个代数步骤:求导两侧、对混合的 $xy$ 项用乘积/链式法则、把所有 $\dfrac{dy}{dx}$ 项收集到一侧、因式分解,并相除。一个跳过代数的正确最终行赢得很少。后续部分然后要求一条切线,或切线在哪里水平($\tfrac{dy}{dx}=0$,所以分子是 $0$)或垂直(分母是 $0$)。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Implicit differentiation 隐函数求导 yǐn hán shù qiú dǎo 3.3
反函数求导
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge FUN-3
Recognizing opportunities to apply derivative rules can simplify differentiation.FUN-3.E
Calculate derivatives of inverse and inverse trigonometric functions.- FUN-3.E.1 The chain rule and definition of an inverse function can be used to find the derivative of an inverse function, provided the derivative exists.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
若 $g$ 是 $f$ 的反函数(inverse function)(所以 $f(g(x))=x$),链式法则联系它们的导数:
$$g'(x) = \frac{1}{f'\big(g(x)\big)},\qquad\text{provided } f'\big(g(x)\big)\neq 0.$$用文字说:反函数在一个点的导数是原函数在匹配点的导数的倒数(reciprocal)。一个常见的考试设置给出一张表和 $f$ 上的一个点 $(a,b)$(所以 $(b,a)$ 在 $g$ 上),然后要求 $g'(b)=\dfrac{1}{f'(a)}$。Worked example. 若 $f(2)=5$ 而 $f'(2)=3$,且 $g$ 是 $f$ 的反函数,那么 $(5,2)$ 位于 $g$ 上而 $g'(5)=\dfrac{1}{f'(2)}=\dfrac{1}{3}$。

反函数是函数在线 y = x 里的镜像 探索An exponential and its inverse the log
y = a·e^(bx) + c
Inverse functions mirror across $y=x$ and their slopes are reciprocals. Where one is steep, its inverse is shallow.
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 inverse function 反函数 fǎn hán shù reciprocal 倒数 dào shǔ 3.4
反三角函数求导
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge FUN-3
Recognizing opportunities to apply derivative rules can simplify differentiation.FUN-3.E
Calculate derivatives of inverse and inverse trigonometric functions.- FUN-3.E.2 The chain rule applied with the definition of an inverse function, or the formula for the derivative of an inverse function, can be used to find the derivatives of inverse trigonometric functions.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
相同的思想给出反三角函数(inverse trigonometric functions)的导数。你应当知道的三个:
$$\frac{d}{dx}\arcsin x = \frac{1}{\sqrt{1-x^2}}, \quad \frac{d}{dx}\arctan x = \frac{1}{1+x^2}, \quad \frac{d}{dx}\text{arcsec}\,x = \frac{1}{|x|\sqrt{x^2-1}}.$$当输入本身是一个函数时把这些与链式法则结合,例如 $\dfrac{d}{dx}\arctan(3x)=\dfrac{3}{1+9x^2}$。词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 inverse trigonometric functions 反三角函数 fǎn sān jiǎo hán shù 3.5
选择求导数的方法
大纲
This topic is intended to focus on the skill of selecting an appropriate procedure for calculating derivatives. Students should be given opportunities to practice when and how to apply all learning objectives relating to calculating derivatives.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
一个技能主题:真实的导数混合几个规则,所以先从外向内读表达式的结构。
- 它是一个和吗?逐项求导。
- 一个积或商?应用那个规则,并预期在里面用链式法则。
- 一个复合(某物在某物里面)?链式法则。
- 隐式地给出?隐函数求导。
命名最外层的运算、应用它的规则,并向内递归。整洁防止那些花费分数的符号和记账错误。
3.6
计算高阶导数
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge FUN-3
Recognizing opportunities to apply derivative rules can simplify differentiation.FUN-3.F
Determine higher order derivatives of a function.- FUN-3.F.1 Differentiating $f'$ produces the second derivative $f''$, provided the derivative of $f'$ exists; repeating this process produces higher-order derivatives of $f$.
- FUN-3.F.2 Higher-order derivatives are represented with a variety of notations. For $y = f(x)$, notations for the second derivative include $\dfrac{d^2 y}{dx^2}$, $f''(x)$, and $y''$. Higher-order derivatives can be denoted $\dfrac{d^n y}{dx^n}$ or $f^{(n)}(x)$.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
求导 $f'$ 产生二阶导数(second derivative)$f''$;重复给出高阶导数。这些记号:
$$f''(x)=\frac{d^2y}{dx^2}=y'', \qquad\text{and in general}\qquad f^{(n)}(x)=\frac{d^n y}{dx^n}.$$二阶导数衡量斜率如何变化;它在后面的单元里驱动凹凸性(concavity)和加速度。要隐式地求 $f''$,再次求导 $\dfrac{dy}{dx}$ 的表达式(用商和链式法则),然后代回 $\dfrac{dy}{dx}$。探索The second derivative is the slope of the slope
y = ax³ + bx² + cx + d
Differentiating again gives $f''$, the rate the slope changes. Where the slope is increasing the curve bends upward.
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 second derivative 二阶导数 èr jiē dǎo shù concavity 凹凸性 āo tū xìng 3.6
考试技巧
- 对复合函数用链式法则——求导外面,然后乘里面的导数(最被遗忘的因子)。
- 对于隐式求导,对 $x$ 求导两侧并在每次 $y$ 被求导时附上 $\tfrac{dy}{dx}$,然后求解。
- 通过求导两次得到二阶导数(速度 → 加速度)。
- 在分层的表达式里仔细组合规则(积里面的链式,等等)。
- 反函数的图象是在 $y=x$ 里的反射;它的斜率是原函数在匹配点斜率的倒数。
-
4
微分在实际情境中的应用
4.1
在实际情境中解释导数的意义
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge CHA-3
Derivatives allow us to solve real-world problems involving rates of change.CHA-3.A
Interpret the meaning of a derivative in context.- CHA-3.A.1 The derivative of a function can be interpreted as the instantaneous rate of change with respect to its independent variable.
- CHA-3.A.2 The derivative can be used to express information about rates of change in applied contexts.
- CHA-3.A.3 The unit for $f'(x)$ is the unit for $f$ divided by the unit for $x$.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
一旦你能计算导数,你就用它们来描述现实世界。导数 $f'(x)$ 就是 $f$ 相对于它的输入的瞬时变化率。正确地读和报告这个率是一个评分的技能。
单位重要。 $f'(x)$ 的单位是 $f$ 的单位除以 $x$ 的单位。若 $C(t)$ 是英亩数而 $t$ 以周计,那么 $C'(t)$ 以英亩每周计。在考试上,"用正确的单位,解释 $g'(140)$ 的意义"想要一个完整的句子:值、量、率词"每",和时刻。例如:"$g'(140)=2.3$ 意味着在 $x=140$ 处,量以约 $2.3$ 单位每单位 $x$ 增加。"
4.2
直线运动:联系位置、速度与加速度
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge CHA-3
Derivatives allow us to solve real-world problems involving rates of change.CHA-3.B
Calculate rates of change in applied contexts.- CHA-3.B.1 The derivative can be used to solve rectilinear motion problems involving position, speed, velocity, and acceleration.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
对于在一条线上移动的一个质点,三个时间的函数由求导联系:

在一个速度-时间图上,面积是位移而斜率是加速度 - 位置(position)$s(t)$;
- 速度(velocity)$v(t)=s'(t)$ ——有符号;它的符号给出方向;
- 加速度(acceleration)$a(t)=v'(t)=s''(t)$。
关键的读取(频繁的考试部分):
- 质点在 $v(t)=0$ 时静止(at rest)。
- 它在 $v(t)>0$ 时向右/上移动而在 $v(t)<0$ 时向左/下移动;它在 $v$ 改变符号的地方改变方向。
- 速率(speed)是 $|v(t)|$。速率增加当 $v$ 和 $a$ 有相同符号(质点在加速)时,而减少当它们有相反符号时。
仔细区分速度(有方向)和速率(没有)——考试考查这个确切的差别。
Worked example. 一个质点以 $s(t)=t^3-6t^2+9t$ 移动。那么 $v(t)=3(t-1)(t-3)$,所以它在 $t=1$ 和 $t=3$ 静止并在每个处改变方向。在 $t=2$,$v=-3<0$ 而 $a(2)=6(2)-12=0$;刚过后,$a>0$ 而 $v<0$,所以质点在那里减速。
探索Velocity is the slope of position
y = ax³ + bx² + cx + d
For straight-line motion, velocity is the derivative (slope) of position and acceleration the derivative of velocity. Slide the point to read the instantaneous velocity.
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 position 位置 wèi zhì velocity 速度 sù dù acceleration 加速度 jiā sù dù at rest 静止 jìng zhǐ Speed 速率 sù lǜ 4.3
除运动之外的实际情境中的变化率
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge CHA-3
Derivatives allow us to solve real-world problems involving rates of change.CHA-3.C
Interpret rates of change in applied contexts.- CHA-3.C.1 The derivative can be used to solve problems involving rates of change in applied contexts.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
相同的导数思想为任何变化的量建模:一个排水的水箱、一个扩散的种群、一杯冷却的水。每当一个问题说"……的速率"时,它就在描述一个导数。读单位以知道你有哪个量的率,然后在上下文里解释。
4.4
相关变化率引入
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge CHA-3
Derivatives allow us to solve real-world problems involving rates of change.CHA-3.D
Calculate related rates in applied contexts.- CHA-3.D.1 The chain rule is the basis for differentiating variables in a related rates problem with respect to the same independent variable.
- CHA-3.D.2 Other differentiation rules, such as the product rule and the quotient rule, may also be necessary to differentiate all variables with respect to the same independent variable.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
在一个相关变化率(related rates)问题里,几个量随时间一起变化,而你知道一些率但想要另一个。引擎是链式法则:对时间 $t$ 求导一个关系。每个变量变成 $t$ 的一个函数,所以每个导数拿到一个"$\,/\,dt$"因子。乘积和商法则也可能被需要。

A rising balloon: related rates link how fast radius, volume and height change together 词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 related rates 相关变化率 xiāng guān biàn huà lǜ 4.5
求解相关变化率问题
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge CHA-3
Derivatives allow us to solve real-world problems involving rates of change.CHA-3.E
Interpret related rates in applied contexts.- CHA-3.E.1 The derivative can be used to solve related rates problems; that is, finding a rate at which one quantity is changing by relating it to other quantities whose rates of change are known.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
一个可靠的程序——以及考试上一个满分的模板:
- 命名变量并写下给定的率和未知的率(例如"$\dfrac{dh}{dt}=-2$ cm/day,求 $\dfrac{dV}{dt}$")。
- 写一个方程关联这些量(常常是一个几何或体积公式)。
- 对 $t$ 求导两侧(链式法则)——在代入数字之前。
- 在感兴趣的瞬间代入已知值,并解未知的率。
- 用单位和正确的符号陈述答案(一个减少的量有一个负的率)。
太早代入数字是经典的错误:先求导一般的关系,然后代入。
Worked example. 一个球形气球的体积以 $\dfrac{dV}{dt}=100\ \text{cm}^3/\text{s}$ 增长。从 $V=\tfrac43\pi r^3$,先求导:$\dfrac{dV}{dt}=4\pi r^2\dfrac{dr}{dt}$。在 $r=5$,$100=4\pi(25)\dfrac{dr}{dt}$,所以 $\dfrac{dr}{dt}=\dfrac{1}{\pi}\approx0.32\ \text{cm/s}$。

一个充气的气球通过链式法则联系 dV/dt 和 dr/dt 4.6
利用局部线性性与线性化近似函数值
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge CHA-3
Derivatives allow us to solve real-world problems involving rates of change.CHA-3.F
Approximate a value on a curve using the equation of a tangent line.- CHA-3.F.1 The tangent line is the graph of a locally linear approximation of the function near the point of tangency.
- CHA-3.F.2 For a tangent line approximation, the function's behavior near the point of tangency may determine whether a tangent line value is an underestimate or an overestimate of the corresponding function value.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
局部线性与线性近似 在一个切点附近,一条光滑曲线看起来像它的切线——这是局部线性(local linearity)。所以切线给出函数在那个点附近的一个线性近似(linear approximation)(线性化):
$$f(x) \approx L(x) = f(a) + f'(a)(x-a).$$用它来估计 $f$ 在一个接近 $a$ 的 $x$ 处。高估还是低估? 答案来自凹凸性(concavity)。若图象在 $a$ 附近上凹(concave up)(它在它的切线上方弯曲),切线值是一个低估(underestimate)。若它下凹(concave down),切线位于曲线上方,给出一个高估(overestimate)。考试部分考查这个推理,所以用 $f''$ 的符号论证。

切线是一个局部线性近似;凹凸性确定高估或低估 探索Approximate a curve with its tangent line
y = ax³ + bx² + cx + d
Local linearity: near a point a smooth curve looks like its tangent line, so the tangent gives a good linear approximation of nearby values.
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 local linearity 局部线性 jú bù xiàn xìng linear approximation 线性近似 xiàn xìng jìn sì concavity 凹凸性 āo tū xìng underestimate 低估 dī gū overestimate 高估 gāo gū 4.7
利用洛必达法则求不定型极限
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge LIM-4
L'Hospital's Rule allows us to determine the limits of some indeterminate forms.LIM-4.A
Determine limits of functions that result in indeterminate forms.- LIM-4.A.1 When the ratio of two functions tends to $\dfrac{0}{0}$ or $\dfrac{\infty}{\infty}$ in the limit, such forms are said to be indeterminate.
- Exclusion statement: There are many other indeterminate forms, such as $\infty - \infty$, for example, but these will not be assessed on either the AP Calculus AB or BC Exam. However, teachers may include these topics, if time permits.
- LIM-4.A.2 Limits of the indeterminate forms $\dfrac{0}{0}$ or $\dfrac{\infty}{\infty}$ may be evaluated using L'Hospital's Rule.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
当极限之商的直接代入给出未定式(indeterminate form)$\dfrac{0}{0}$ 或 $\dfrac{\infty}{\infty}$ 时,你可以用洛必达法则(L'Hospital's Rule):
$$\lim_{x\to c}\frac{f(x)}{g(x)} = \lim_{x\to c}\frac{f'(x)}{g'(x)},$$只要右侧极限存在。分别求导顶部和底部(这不是商法则),然后再次尝试极限。先确认形式真的是 $\tfrac{0}{0}$ 或 $\tfrac{\infty}{\infty}$ ——把规则应用于任何其他形式是一个错误。Worked example. $\displaystyle\lim_{x\to0}\frac{\sin x}{x}$ 给出 $\tfrac00$,所以求导顶部和底部:$\displaystyle\lim_{x\to0}\frac{\cos x}{1}=1$。而 $\displaystyle\lim_{x\to0}\frac{e^{2x}-1}{x}$ 也是 $\tfrac00$;它变成 $\displaystyle\lim_{x\to0}\frac{2e^{2x}}{1}=2$。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 indeterminate form 未定式 wèi dìng shì L'Hospital's Rule 洛必达法则 luò bì dá fǎ zé 4.7
考试技巧
- 在运动问题里:速度是位置的导数、加速度是速度的导数;速率增加当速度和加速度共享一个符号时。
- 对于相关变化率,对时间求导关联方程,然后最后代入给定值。
- 在一个已知点附近用切线做一个线性近似;它只在附近准确。
- 读一个率的符号:正意味着量一起移动,负意味着相反。
- 总是陈述单位并在上下文里解释答案。
-
5
微分的分析性应用
5.1
运用中值定理
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge FUN-1
Existence theorems allow us to draw conclusions about a function's behavior on an interval without precisely locating that behavior.FUN-1.B
Justify conclusions about functions by applying the Mean Value Theorem over an interval.- FUN-1.B.1 If a function $f$ is continuous over the interval $[a, b]$ and differentiable over the interval $(a, b)$, then the Mean Value Theorem guarantees a point within that open interval where the instantaneous rate of change equals the average rate of change over the interval.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
中值定理 中值定理(Mean Value Theorem)(MVT)把平均变化率联系到一个瞬时的:
若 $f$ 在 $[a,b]$ 上连续且在 $(a,b)$ 上可微,那么在 $(a,b)$ 里有至少一个点 $c$,其中
$$f'(c) = \frac{f(b)-f(a)}{b-a}.$$用文字说:区间里面的某处,瞬时率等于平均率。几何上,某条切线平行于连接端点的线。

中值定理:某条切线平行于区间上的割线 考试技能。 像 IVT 一样,MVT 是一个存在性定理,而问题要求你论证。满分需要:(1) 陈述 $f$ 在 $[a,b]$ 上连续且在 $(a,b)$ 上可微;(2) 计算平均率 $\frac{f(b)-f(a)}{b-a}$;(3) 下结论"由 MVT 在 $(a,b)$ 里有一个 $c$ 满足 $f'(c)$ 等于那个值。"两个假设都必须被命名。
Worked example. 对 $[1,3]$ 上的 $f(x)=x^2$,平均率是 $\dfrac{9-1}{2}=4$;令 $f'(c)=2c=4$ 给出 $c=2$,它位于 $(1,3)$ 里——那个被保证的点。
探索The Mean Value Theorem in action
y = ax³ + bx² + cx + d
The Mean Value Theorem guarantees a point where the tangent is parallel to the secant across an interval — the instantaneous rate equals the average rate somewhere inside.
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Mean Value Theorem 中值定理 zhōng zhí dìng lǐ 5.2
极值定理、整体极值与局部极值以及临界点
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge FUN-1
Existence theorems allow us to draw conclusions about a function's behavior on an interval without precisely locating that behavior.FUN-1.C
Justify conclusions about functions by applying the Extreme Value Theorem.- FUN-1.C.1 If a function $f$ is continuous over the interval $(a, b)$, then the Extreme Value Theorem guarantees that $f$ has at least one minimum value and at least one maximum value on $[a, b]$.
- FUN-1.C.2 A point on a function where the first derivative equals zero or fails to exist is a critical point of the function.
- FUN-1.C.3 All local (relative) extrema occur at critical points of a function, though not all critical points are local extrema.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
极值定理(Extreme Value Theorem)(EVT)保证极值存在:一个在闭区间 $[a,b]$ 上连续的函数在它上面同时取得一个绝对最大值和一个绝对最小值。

在一个最大值或最小值处导数为零 一个临界点(critical point)是一个内部点,其中 $f'(x)=0$ 或 $f'(x)$ 不存在。所有的局部(相对)极值(local (relative) extrema)出现在临界点——但不是每个临界点都是一个极值。所以临界点是候选者;你必须测试每一个。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Extreme Value Theorem 极值定理 jí zhí dìng lǐ critical point 临界点 lín jiè diǎn local (relative) extrema 局部极值 jú bù jí zhí 5.3
确定函数递增或递减的区间
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge FUN-4
A function's derivative can be used to understand some behaviors of the function.FUN-4.A
Justify conclusions about the behavior of a function based on the behavior of its derivatives.- FUN-4.A.1 The first derivative of a function can provide information about the function and its graph, including intervals where the function is increasing or decreasing.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
一阶导数告诉你 $f$ 在哪里上升或下降:
- 在一个区间上 $f'(x) > 0$ $\Rightarrow$ $f$ 在那里递增(increasing);
- $f'(x) < 0$ $\Rightarrow$ $f$ 递减(decreasing)。
在考试上,"求 $f$ 递增的区间"意味着:找到临界点,然后测试它们之间 $f'$ 的符号,并用 $f'$ 的符号论证(一个陈述的理由,不只是一个区间)。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 increasing 递增 dì zēng decreasing 递减 dì jiǎn 5.4
用一阶导数判别法确定相对(局部)极值
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge FUN-4
A function's derivative can be used to understand some behaviors of the function.FUN-4.A
Justify conclusions about the behavior of a function based on the behavior of its derivatives.- FUN-4.A.2 The first derivative of a function can determine the location of relative (local) extrema of the function.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
要把一个临界点 $x=c$ 分类为一个局部极大值、局部极小值,或都不是,检查 $f'$ 在那里如何改变符号:
- $f'$ 在 $c$ 处从 $+$ 变 $-$ $\Rightarrow$ 极大值(local maximum);
- $f'$ 在 $c$ 处从 $-$ 变 $+$ $\Rightarrow$ 极小值(local minimum);
- $f'$ 不改变符号 $\Rightarrow$ 都不是。
总是把符号变化陈述为你的论证。
Worked example. 对于 $f(x)=x^3-3x^2$,$f'(x)=3x(x-2)$ 在 $x=0,2$ 为零。符号给出 $+,-,+$,所以 $x=0$ 是一个极大值($f=0$)而 $x=2$ 是一个极小值($f=-4$)。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 local maximum 极大值 jí dà zhí local minimum 极小值 jí xiǎo zhí 5.5
用候选点判别法确定绝对(整体)极值
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge FUN-4
A function's derivative can be used to understand some behaviors of the function.FUN-4.A
Justify conclusions about the behavior of a function based on the behavior of its derivatives.- FUN-4.A.3 Absolute (global) extrema of a function on a closed interval can only occur at critical points or at endpoints.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
在一个闭区间上,绝对(全局)极值只出现在临界点或端点。候选者测试(candidates test):
- 列出 $[a,b]$ 里所有的临界点和两个端点。
- 在每个候选者处求 $f$。
- 最大的输出是绝对最大值;最小的是绝对最小值。
展示值的表——这个比较就是论证。
5.6
确定函数在其定义域上的凹凸性
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge FUN-4
A function's derivative can be used to understand some behaviors of the function.FUN-4.A
Justify conclusions about the behavior of a function based on the behavior of its derivatives.- FUN-4.A.4 The graph of a function is concave up (down) on an open interval if the function's derivative is increasing (decreasing) on that interval.
- FUN-4.A.5 The second derivative of a function provides information about the function and its graph, including intervals of upward or downward concavity.
- FUN-4.A.6 The second derivative of a function may be used to locate points of inflection for the graph of the original function.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
二阶导数描述弯曲:
- $f'' > 0$ $\Rightarrow$ $f$ 是上凹(concave up)(像一个杯子那样弯曲;$f'$ 递增);
- $f'' < 0$ $\Rightarrow$ $f$ 是下凹(concave down)($f'$ 递减)。
一个拐点(point of inflection)是凹凸性改变的地方,即 $f''$ 改变符号的地方(不仅仅是 $f''=0$ 的地方)。报告它的 $x$ 坐标并用 $f''$ 的符号变化论证。

凹凸性来自二阶导数的符号;它在一个拐点处翻转 探索Find where concavity flips
y = ax³ + bx² + cx + d
Concavity is the sign of the second derivative: concave up where the curve holds water, concave down where it spills. A point of inflection is where it switches.
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 concave up 上凹 shàng āo concave down 下凹 xià āo point of inflection 拐点 guǎi diǎn 5.7
用二阶导数判别法确定极值
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge FUN-4
A function's derivative can be used to understand some behaviors of the function.FUN-4.A
Justify conclusions about the behavior of a function based on the behavior of its derivatives.- FUN-4.A.7 The second derivative of a function may determine whether a critical point is the location of a relative (local) maximum or minimum.
- FUN-4.A.8 When a continuous function has only one critical point on an interval on its domain and the critical point corresponds to a relative (local) extremum of the function on the interval, then that critical point also corresponds to the absolute (global) extremum of the function on the interval.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
分类一个 $f'(c)=0$ 的临界点 $c$ 的另一种方式:
- $f''(c) > 0$ $\Rightarrow$ 上凹 $\Rightarrow$ 极小值;
- $f''(c) < 0$ $\Rightarrow$ 下凹 $\Rightarrow$ 极大值;
- $f''(c) = 0$ $\Rightarrow$ 测试不确定——退回到一阶导数测试。
特殊情况:若一个连续函数在一个区间上只有一个临界点而它是一个局部极值,那个点也是那里的绝对极值。
5.8
绘制函数及其导数的图像
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge FUN-4
A function's derivative can be used to understand some behaviors of the function.FUN-4.A
Justify conclusions about the behavior of a function based on the behavior of its derivatives.- FUN-4.A.9 Key features of functions and their derivatives can be identified and related to their graphical, numerical, and analytical representations.
- FUN-4.A.10 Graphical, numerical, and analytical information from $f'$ and $f''$ can be used to predict and explain the behavior of $f$.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
$f$、$f'$ 和 $f''$ 的关键特征彼此映照。要草绘或读图象:
- $f$ 递增 $\Leftrightarrow$ $f'$ 在坐标轴上方;$f$ 有一个极大值 $\Leftrightarrow$ $f'$ 从 $+$ 穿越到 $-$。
- $f$ 上凹 $\Leftrightarrow$ $f'$ 递增 $\Leftrightarrow$ $f''$ 在坐标轴上方;$f$ 有一个拐点 $\Leftrightarrow$ $f'$ 有一个局部极值 $\Leftrightarrow$ $f''$ 穿越零。
5.9
联系函数、一阶导数与二阶导数
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge FUN-4
A function's derivative can be used to understand some behaviors of the function.FUN-4.A
Justify conclusions about the behavior of a function based on the behavior of its derivatives.- FUN-4.A.11 Key features of the graphs of $f$, $f'$, and $f''$ are related to one another.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
这是读一个图象来描述另一个的技能。一个很常见的考试设置给出 $f'$ 的图象并问关于 $f$ 的:$f$ 在哪里递增($f'>0$ 的地方)、$f$ 的极值在哪里($f'$ 穿越零、带一个符号变化的地方)、$f$ 在哪里上凹($f'$ 递增的地方)。用 $f'$ 图象的高度和斜率回答关于 $f$ 的问题。
探索Read slope and bend off the graph
y = ax³ + bx² + cx + d
Where $f'>0$ the function rises; where $f''>0$ it bends upward. Slide the tangent to connect the shape of $f$ to the signs of its first and second derivatives.
5.10
最优化问题引入
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge FUN-4
A function's derivative can be used to understand some behaviors of the function.FUN-4.B
Calculate minimum and maximum values in applied contexts or analysis of functions.- FUN-4.B.1 The derivative can be used to solve optimization problems; that is, finding a minimum or maximum value of a function on a given interval.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
最优化:最大体积的盒子 最优化(optimization)用导数来求一个量在一个区间上的最大或最小值。它是候选者/导数测试机器应用于一个真实的目标。

Fenced enclosures: optimization finds the dimensions that maximise area for a fixed fence length 词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Optimization 最优化 zuì yōu huà 5.11
求解最优化问题
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge FUN-4
A function's derivative can be used to understand some behaviors of the function.FUN-4.C
Interpret minimum and maximum values calculated in applied contexts.- FUN-4.C.1 Minimum and maximum values of a function take on specific meanings in applied contexts.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
一个可靠的程序:
- 把要最优化的量写成一个变量的一个函数(用一个约束方程消去多余的)。
- 陈述允许输入的区间。
- 求临界点($f'=0$ 或未定义)并测试它们(一阶或二阶导数测试,或若区间是闭的用候选者测试)。
- 回答所问的问题,带上下文里的单位和解释——最大的面积、最小的成本,等等。
Worked example. 用 $100\ \text{m}$ 的围栏做一个靠墙的矩形围栏(只有三条边被围),设两端为 $x$ 而远边 $y=100-2x$。面积 $A(x)=x(100-2x)=100x-2x^2$ 有 $A'(x)=100-4x=0$ 在 $x=25$;因为 $A''=-4<0$ 这是最大值,给出 $y=50$ 和 $A=1250\ \text{m}^2$。
5.12
探究隐式关系的性态
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge FUN-4
A function's derivative can be used to understand some behaviors of the function.FUN-4.D
Determine critical points of implicit relations.- FUN-4.D.1 A point on an implicit relation where the first derivative equals zero or does not exist is a critical point of the function.
FUN-4.E
Justify conclusions about the behavior of an implicitly defined function based on evidence from its derivatives.- FUN-4.E.1 Applications of derivatives can be extended to implicitly defined functions.
- FUN-4.E.2 Second derivatives involving implicit differentiation may be relations of $x$, $y$, and $\dfrac{dy}{dx}$.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
这一切延伸到隐式定义的关系。一个隐式关系的一个临界点是 $\dfrac{dy}{dx}=0$(水平切线)或未定义(垂直切线)的地方。因为 $\dfrac{dy}{dx}$ 通常是一个 $x$ 和 $y$ 的关系,而二阶导数涉及 $x$、$y$ 和 $\dfrac{dy}{dx}$,在求 $\dfrac{d^2y}{dx^2}$ 时代回你的一阶导数表达式,然后从它的符号推理凹凸性。
5.12
考试技巧
- $f'>0$ 意味着递增、$f'<0$ 递减;极值的候选者是 $f'=0$ 或未定义的地方。
- 用一阶导数符号变化或二阶导数测试($f''>0$ 极小值、$f''<0$ 极大值)分类一个临界点。
- $f''>0$ 是上凹、$f''<0$ 下凹;一个拐点是凹凸性改变($f''$ 改变符号)的地方。
- 对于一个闭区间上的绝对极值,也检查端点。
- 用引用 $f'$ 或 $f''$ 的符号论证每个结论——考试要求推理,不只是答案。
-
6
积分与变化的累积
6.1
探究变化的累积
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge CHA-4
Definite integrals allow us to solve problems involving the accumulation of change over an interval.CHA-4.A
Interpret the meaning of areas associated with the graph of a rate of change in context.- CHA-4.A.1 The area of the region between the graph of a rate of change function and the $x$ axis gives the accumulation of change.
- CHA-4.A.2 In some cases, accumulation of change can be evaluated by using geometry.
- CHA-4.A.3 If a rate of change is positive (negative) over an interval, then the accumulated change is positive (negative).
- CHA-4.A.4 The unit for the area of a region defined by rate of change is the unit for the rate of change multiplied by the unit for the independent variable.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
导数衡量一个率,而一个积分(integral)衡量一个累积(accumulation)——从一个率累积起来的一个总量。若一个变化率在一个区间上作用,它的图象和坐标轴之间的面积(area)给出净累积变化。这个"面积 = 总变化"的思想是积分学的基础。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 integral 积分 jī fēn accumulation 累积 lěi jī 6.2
用黎曼和近似面积
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge LIM-5
Definite integrals can be approximated using geometric and numerical methods.LIM-5.A
Approximate a definite integral using geometric and numerical methods.- LIM-5.A.1 Definite integrals can be approximated for functions that are represented graphically, numerically, analytically, and verbally.
- LIM-5.A.2 Definite integrals can be approximated using a left Riemann sum, a right Riemann sum, a midpoint Riemann sum, or a trapezoidal sum; approximations can be computed using either uniform or nonuniform partitions.
- LIM-5.A.3 Definite integrals can be approximated using numerical methods, with or without technology.
- LIM-5.A.4 Depending on the behavior of a function, it may be possible to determine whether an approximation for a definite integral is an underestimate or overestimate for the value of the definite integral.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
定积分与黎曼和 梯形和近似面积 一个黎曼和(Riemann sum)通过加起薄矩形的面积来估计一条曲线下的面积。把 $[a,b]$ 分成子区间并用每个的左端点、右端点或中点处的函数高度。一个梯形法(trapezoidal sum)改用梯形,对两个端点高度取平均——通常更准确。用更多、更薄的矩形,估计改善。

一个黎曼和用矩形近似一条曲线下的面积 
宽度 h 的条近似一条曲线下的面积 考试技能: 能够从一张表或图象计算左、右、中点和梯形估计,并基于函数是递增/递减还是上凹/下凹陈述每个是高估还是低估。
探索Approximate area with rectangles
y = ax³ + bx² + cx + d
A Riemann sum approximates the area under a curve with rectangles. Add more, thinner rectangles and the estimate converges to the exact definite integral.
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Riemann sum 黎曼和 lí màn hé trapezoidal sum 梯形法 tī xíng fǎ 6.3
黎曼和、求和记号与定积分记号
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge LIM-5
Definite integrals can be approximated using geometric and numerical methods.LIM-5.B
Interpret the limiting case of the Riemann sum as a definite integral.- LIM-5.B.1 The limit of an approximating Riemann sum can be interpreted as a definite integral.
- LIM-5.B.2 A Riemann sum, which requires a partition of an interval $I$, is the sum of products, each of which is the value of the function at a point in a subinterval multiplied by the length of that subinterval of the partition.
LIM-5.C
Represent the limiting case of the Riemann sum as a definite integral.- LIM-5.C.1 The definite integral of a continuous function $f$ over the interval $[a, b]$, denoted by $\int_{a}^{b} f(x)\,dx$, is the limit of Riemann sums as the widths of the subintervals approach 0. That is, $\int_{a}^{b} f(x)\,dx = \lim_{\max \Delta x_i \to 0} \sum_{i=1}^{n} f(x_i^*)\Delta x_i$, where $n$ is the number of subintervals, $\Delta x_i$ is the width of the $i$th subinterval, and $x_i^*$ is a value in the $i$th subinterval.
- LIM-5.C.2 A definite integral can be translated into the limit of a related Riemann sum, and the limit of a Riemann sum can be written as a definite integral.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
用求和记号(summation notation)$\sum_{k=1}^{n} f(x_k)\,\Delta x$ 写一个黎曼和,并让矩形数量无界地增长,给出精确的面积——定积分(definite integral):
$$\int_a^b f(x)\,dx=\lim_{n\to\infty}\sum_{k=1}^{n} f(x_k)\,\Delta x.$$积分是黎曼和的极限;$a$ 和 $b$ 是积分的限。词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 definite integral 定积分 dìng jī fēn 6.4
微积分基本定理与累积函数
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge FUN-5
The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus connects differentiation and integration.FUN-5.A
Represent accumulation functions using definite integrals.- FUN-5.A.1 The definite integral can be used to define new functions.
- Illustrative examples for FUN-5.A.1: $f(x) = \int_{0}^{x} e^{-t^2}\,dt$.
- FUN-5.A.2 If $f$ is a continuous function on an interval containing $a$, then $\dfrac{d}{dx}\left( \int_{a}^{x} f(t)\,dt \right) = f(x)$, where $x$ is in the interval.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
微积分基本定理 一个累积函数(accumulation function)$g(x)=\int_a^x f(t)\,dt$ 给出从 $a$ 到 $x$ 累积的面积。微积分基本定理(FTC)(Fundamental Theorem of Calculus)说它的导数是被积函数:
$$\frac{d}{dx}\int_a^x f(t)\,dt=f(x).$$求导和积分是互逆的运算。以一个变的上限和链式法则,$\dfrac{d}{dx}\int_a^{u(x)} f(t)\,dt=f(u(x))\,u'(x)$。探索Accumulate area as an integral
y = ax³ + bx² + cx + d
An accumulation function $\int_a^x f(t)\,dt$ builds up signed area as $x$ moves. The Fundamental Theorem says its derivative is just $f(x)$.
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 accumulation function 累积函数 lěi jī hán shù Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (FTC) 微积分基本定理 wēi jī fēn jī běn dìng lǐ 6.5
解释涉及面积的累积函数的性态
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge FUN-5
The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus connects differentiation and integration.FUN-5.A
Represent accumulation functions using definite integrals.- FUN-5.A.3 Graphical, numerical, analytical, and verbal representations of a function $f$ provide information about the function $g$ defined as $g(x) = \int_{a}^{x} f(t)\,dt$.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
因为 $g'(x)=f(x)$,$f$ 的图象告诉你关于 $g$ 的一切:$g$ 在 $f>0$ 的地方递增、在 $f<0$ 的地方递减、在 $f$ 穿越零的地方有极值,而在 $f$ 递增的地方上凹。从一个 $f$ 的图象读出这些联系是一个经典的自由回答任务。
6.6
应用定积分的性质
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge FUN-6
Recognizing opportunities to apply knowledge of geometry and mathematical rules can simplify integration.FUN-6.A
Calculate a definite integral using areas and properties of definite integrals.- FUN-6.A.1 In some cases, a definite integral can be evaluated by using geometry and the connection between the definite integral and area.
- FUN-6.A.2 Properties of definite integrals include the integral of a constant times a function, the integral of the sum of two functions, reversal of limits of integration, and the integral of a function over adjacent intervals.
- FUN-6.A.3 The definition of the definite integral may be extended to functions with removable or jump discontinuities.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
定积分遵循有用的规则:反转限使值取负($\int_b^a=-\int_a^b$)、一个零宽度区间上的积分是 $0$、它们在相邻区间上相加($\int_a^c=\int_a^b+\int_b^c$),而常数提出。用这些来组合或拆分给定的积分值。
6.7
微积分基本定理与定积分
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge FUN-6
Recognizing opportunities to apply knowledge of geometry and mathematical rules can simplify integration.FUN-6.B
Evaluate definite integrals analytically using the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus.- FUN-6.B.1 An antiderivative of a function $f$ is a function $g$ whose derivative is $f$.
- FUN-6.B.2 If a function $f$ is continuous on an interval containing $a$, the function defined by $F(x) = \int_{a}^{x} f(t)\,dt$ is an antiderivative of $f$ for $x$ in the interval.
- FUN-6.B.3 If $f$ is continuous on the interval $[a, b]$ and $F$ is an antiderivative of $f$, then $\int_{a}^{b} f(x)\,dx = F(b) - F(a)$.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
FTC 的求值形式用一个原函数(antiderivative)$F$(其中 $F'=f$)计算一个定积分:
$$\int_a^b f(x)\,dx=F(b)-F(a).$$所以在 $[a,b]$ 上积分一个变化率给出量的净变化——课程里最常用的结果。Worked example. $\displaystyle\int_1^3 (2x+1)\,dx$:一个原函数是 $F(x)=x^2+x$,所以值是 $F(3)-F(1)=12-2=10$。

一个定积分是曲线和 x 轴之间有符号的面积 词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 antiderivative 原函数 yuán hán shù 6.8
求原函数与不定积分:基本法则与记号
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge FUN-6
Recognizing opportunities to apply knowledge of geometry and mathematical rules can simplify integration.FUN-6.C
Determine antiderivatives of functions and indefinite integrals, using knowledge of derivatives.- FUN-6.C.1 $\int f(x)\,dx$ is an indefinite integral of the function $f$ and can be expressed as $\int f(x)\,dx = F(x) + C$, where $F'(x) = f(x)$ and $C$ is any constant.
- FUN-6.C.2 Differentiation rules provide the foundation for finding antiderivatives.
- FUN-6.C.3 Many functions do not have closed-form antiderivatives.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
一个不定积分(indefinite integral)$\int f(x)\,dx=F(x)+C$ 是所有原函数的族(因此有积分常数(constant of integration)$C$)。反转每个求导规则:幂法则变成 $\int x^n\,dx=\dfrac{x^{n+1}}{n+1}+C$(对 $n\neq-1$),带 $\int \frac1x\,dx=\ln|x|+C$,而 $e^x$、$\sin x$、$\cos x$ 和 $\sec^2 x$ 的原函数直接来自它们的导数。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 indefinite integral 不定积分 bù dìng jī fēn 6.9
用换元法积分
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge FUN-6
Recognizing opportunities to apply knowledge of geometry and mathematical rules can simplify integration.FUN-6.D
For integrands requiring substitution or rearrangements into equivalent forms:
(a) Determine indefinite integrals.
(b) Evaluate definite integrals.- FUN-6.D.1 Substitution of variables is a technique for finding antiderivatives.
- FUN-6.D.2 For a definite integral, substitution of variables requires corresponding changes to the limits of integration.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
u-换元(u-substitution)反转链式法则:选择 $u=g(x)$ 使得 $g'(x)$ 也出现,把 $\int f(g(x))g'(x)\,dx$ 变成 $\int f(u)\,du$。记得把 $dx$ 转换成 $du$,而对于一个定积分,要么把限改成 $u$ 值,要么在最后转换回 $x$。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 u-substitution 换元积分 huàn yuán jī fēn 6.10
用长除法与配方法积分
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge FUN-6
Recognizing opportunities to apply knowledge of geometry and mathematical rules can simplify integration.FUN-6.D
For integrands requiring substitution or rearrangements into equivalent forms:
(a) Determine indefinite integrals.
(b) Evaluate definite integrals.- FUN-6.D.3 Techniques for finding antiderivatives include rearrangements into equivalent forms, such as long division and completing the square.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
当一个有理被积函数"头重"(分子次数 $\ge$ 分母次数)时,长除法(long division)把它重写为一个多项式加一个你能积分的真分数。在分母里配方法(completing the square)把它变成一个像 $u^2+a^2$ 的形式,引向一个反正切(arctangent)原函数 $\frac1a\arctan\frac{u}{a}+C$。
6.11
用分部积分法积分
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge FUN-6
Recognizing opportunities to apply knowledge of geometry and mathematical rules can simplify integration.FUN-6.E
For integrands requiring integration by parts:
(a) Determine indefinite integrals. BC ONLY
(b) Evaluate definite integrals. BC ONLY- FUN-6.E.1 Integration by parts is a technique for finding antiderivatives. BC ONLY
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
分部积分(integration by parts)反转乘积法则:
$$\int u\,dv = uv-\int v\,du.$$选择 $u$ 使得求导时化简而 $dv$ 使得容易积分(LIATE 向导:对数、反三角、代数、三角、指数)。它处理像 $\int x e^x\,dx$ 和 $\int x\ln x\,dx$ 这样的乘积,有时应用两次。Worked example. 对于 $\int x e^x\,dx$,选择 $u=x$($du=dx$)和 $dv=e^x\,dx$($v=e^x$):
$$\int x e^x\,dx = x e^x-\int e^x\,dx = x e^x - e^x + C = e^x(x-1)+C.$$词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Integration by parts 分部积分 fēn bù jī fēn 6.12
用线性部分分式积分
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge FUN-6
Recognizing opportunities to apply knowledge of geometry and mathematical rules can simplify integration.FUN-6.F
For integrands requiring integration by linear partial fractions:
(a) Determine indefinite integrals. BC ONLY
(b) Evaluate definite integrals. BC ONLY- FUN-6.F.1 Some rational functions can be decomposed into sums of ratios of linear, nonrepeating factors to which basic integration techniques can be applied. BC ONLY
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
部分分式(partial fractions)把一个带一个可分解分母的有理函数拆分成更简单分数的一个和:
$$\frac{1}{(x-a)(x-b)}=\frac{A}{x-a}+\frac{B}{x-b},$$它们每个都积分到一个对数(logarithm)。这个技法对下个单元的逻辑斯蒂微分方程至关重要。词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Partial fractions 部分分式 bù fèn fēn shì 6.13
计算反常积分
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge LIM-6
The use of limits allows us to show that the areas of unbounded regions may be finite.LIM-6.A
Evaluate an improper integral or determine that the integral diverges. BC ONLY- LIM-6.A.1 An improper integral is an integral that has one or both limits infinite or has an integrand that is unbounded in the interval of integration. BC ONLY
- LIM-6.A.2 Improper integrals can be determined using limits of definite integrals. BC ONLY
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
反常积分:收敛与发散 一个反常积分(improper integral)有一个积分的无穷限或被积函数里的一个无穷间断。把它作为一个极限求值:$\int_a^\infty f\,dx=\lim_{b\to\infty}\int_a^b f\,dx$。若极限是一个有限数积分收敛(converges);否则它发散(diverges)。
Worked example. $\displaystyle\int_1^\infty \frac{1}{x^2}\,dx=\lim_{b\to\infty}\left[-\frac1x\right]_1^b=\lim_{b\to\infty}\left(1-\frac1b\right)=1$,所以它收敛到 $1$。相比之下 $\int_1^\infty \frac1x\,dx$ 给出 $\lim_{b\to\infty}\ln b=\infty$ 并发散——相同的被积函数形状能走任一条路。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 improper integral 反常积分 fǎn cháng jī fēn converges 收敛 shōu liǎn diverges 发散 fā sàn 6.14
选择求原函数的方法
大纲
This topic is intended to focus on the skill of selecting an appropriate procedure for antidifferentiation. Students should be given opportunities to practice when and how to apply all learning objectives relating to antidifferentiation.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
BC 考试期望你辨认哪个方法适合:基本规则、换元(一个链式法则模式)、分部(一个乘积)、部分分式(一个可分解的有理式),或长除法/配方法。能够看一个积分并快速挑选正确的工具本身就是一个被考查的技能。
6.14
考试技巧
- 积分是反求导;用幂法则 $\int x^n\,dx=\tfrac{x^{n+1}}{n+1}+C$ 并不要忘记 $+C$。
- 基本定理联系这两者:$\int_a^b f'(x)\,dx=f(b)-f(a)$,而 $\tfrac{d}{dx}\int_a^x f(t)\,dt=f(x)$。
- 用黎曼和或从一张值表的梯形法则近似一个定积分。
- 一个定积分是一个有符号的面积(坐标轴下方算负的);在符号变化处拆分以求总面积。
- 用 u-换元并记得相应地改变限(或反代)。
-
7
微分方程
7.1
用微分方程为情境建模
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge FUN-7
Solving differential equations allows us to determine functions and develop models.FUN-7.A
Interpret verbal statements of problems as differential equations involving a derivative expression.- FUN-7.A.1 Differential equations relate a function of an independent variable and the function's derivatives.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
一个微分方程(differential equation)把一个函数与它的导数关联。许多真实的情况由一个率描述:"种群以与它的大小成比例的一个率增长"变成 $\dfrac{dP}{dt}=kP$。从一个文字描述设置方程——辨别什么变化以及它与什么成比例——是第一个技能。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 differential equation 微分方程 wēi fēn fāng chéng 7.2
验证微分方程的解
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge FUN-7
Solving differential equations allows us to determine functions and develop models.FUN-7.B
Verify solutions to differential equations.- FUN-7.B.1 Derivatives can be used to verify that a function is a solution to a given differential equation.
- FUN-7.B.2 There may be infinitely many general solutions to a differential equation.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
一个解(solution)是满足方程的一个函数。要验证一个提出的解,求导它并代入方程,检查两侧一致。一个通解(general solution)包含一个常数 $C$;一个特解(particular solution)从一个条件确定 $C$。
7.3
绘制斜率场
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge FUN-7
Solving differential equations allows us to determine functions and develop models.FUN-7.C
Estimate solutions to differential equations.- FUN-7.C.1 A slope field is a graphical representation of a differential equation on a finite set of points in the plane.
- FUN-7.C.2 Slope fields provide information about the behavior of solutions to first-order differential equations.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
斜率场与解曲线 一个斜率场(slope field)在许多点画一个短线段,每个带方程在那里给出的斜率 $\dfrac{dy}{dx}$。它描绘解曲线的族而不求解。要草绘一个,在每个网格点求右侧的值并画一个那个斜率的线段。

一个斜率场处处显示斜率;解曲线跟随它 探索Read a differential equation as a slope field
A slope field draws the slope $dy/dx$ at each point. A solution curve threads through, always tangent to the little segments — you can sketch it by following the flow.
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 slope field 斜率场 xié lǜ chǎng 7.4
利用斜率场进行推理
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge FUN-7
Solving differential equations allows us to determine functions and develop models.FUN-7.C
Estimate solutions to differential equations.- FUN-7.C.3 Solutions to differential equations are functions or families of functions.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
一条解曲线跟随这些线段,像一条船跟随一股水流。从一个斜率场你能草绘通过一个给定点的特解、描述长期行为,并定位解在哪里趋平(斜率接近零)——纯粹从图片推理解。
7.5
用欧拉法近似求解
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge FUN-7
Solving differential equations allows us to determine functions and develop models.FUN-7.C
Estimate solutions to differential equations.- FUN-7.C.4 Euler's method provides a procedure for approximating a solution to a differential equation or a point on a solution curve. BC ONLY
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
欧拉法 欧拉方法(Euler's method)通过沿着斜率场步进来数值地近似一个解。从一个已知点开始,取一个小步长 $\Delta x$ 并更新:
$$y_{\text{new}}=y_{\text{old}}+\frac{dy}{dx}\cdot\Delta x.$$对每一步重复。更小的步长给出更好的近似。(这是一个 BC 独有的技法。)考试技能: 能够从一张表手工执行两三个欧拉步,并知道欧拉方法根据解的凹凸性低估或高估。
Worked example. 用步长 $\Delta x=0.5$ 为 $\dfrac{dy}{dx}=x+y$、$y(0)=1$ 近似 $y(1)$。第 1 步:$(0,1)$ 处的斜率是 $0+1=1$,所以 $y(0.5)\approx 1+1(0.5)=1.5$。第 2 步:$(0.5,1.5)$ 处的斜率是 $0.5+1.5=2$,所以 $y(1)\approx 1.5+2(0.5)=2.5$。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Euler's method 欧拉方法 ōu lā fāng fǎ 7.6
用分离变量法求通解
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge FUN-7
Solving differential equations allows us to determine functions and develop models.FUN-7.D
Determine general solutions to differential equations.- FUN-7.D.1 Some differential equations can be solved by separation of variables.
- FUN-7.D.2 Antidifferentiation can be used to find general solutions to differential equations.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
一个可分离(separable)微分方程能被写成所有 $y$ 在一侧而所有 $x$ 在另一侧,然后积分:
$$\frac{dy}{dx}=g(x)h(y)\ \Rightarrow\ \int\frac{dy}{h(y)}=\int g(x)\,dx.$$这产生通解(带一个 $+C$),课程里解微分方程的主要解析方法。Worked example. 用 $y(0)=2$ 解 $\dfrac{dy}{dx}=xy$。分离,$\int\frac{dy}{y}=\int x\,dx$ 给出 $\ln|y|=\frac{x^2}{2}+C$,所以 $y=Ae^{x^2/2}$。条件 $y(0)=2$ 给出 $A=2$,所以 $y=2e^{x^2/2}$。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 separable 可分离 kě fēn lí 7.7
用初始条件与分离变量法求特解
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge FUN-7
Solving differential equations allows us to determine functions and develop models.FUN-7.E
Determine particular solutions to differential equations.- FUN-7.E.1 A general solution may describe infinitely many solutions to a differential equation. There is only one particular solution passing through a given point.
- FUN-7.E.2 The function $F$ defined by $F(x) = y_0 + \int_a^x f(t)\,dt$ is a particular solution to the differential equation $\dfrac{dy}{dx} = f(x)$, satisfying $F(a) = y_0$.
- FUN-7.E.3 Solutions to differential equations may be subject to domain restrictions.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
一个初始条件(initial condition)(一个已知点,例如 $y(0)=5$)确定常数 $C$。求通解、代入条件以求 $C$,然后写特解。注意定义域——一个特解只在包含初始点的区间上有效。

常数给出一族曲线;一个初始条件选出一条 词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 initial condition 初始条件 chū shǐ tiáo jiàn 7.8
微分方程的指数模型
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge FUN-7
Solving differential equations allows us to determine functions and develop models.FUN-7.F
Interpret the meaning of a differential equation and its variables in context.- FUN-7.F.1 Specific applications of finding general and particular solutions to differential equations include motion along a line and exponential growth and decay.
- FUN-7.F.2 The model for exponential growth and decay that arises from the statement "The rate of change of a quantity is proportional to the size of the quantity" is $\dfrac{dy}{dt} = ky$.
FUN-7.G
Determine general and particular solutions for problems involving differential equations in context.- FUN-7.G.1 The exponential growth and decay model, $\dfrac{dy}{dt} = ky$, with initial condition $y = y_0$ when $t = 0$, has solutions of the form $y = y_0 e^{kt}$.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
指数增长与逻辑斯蒂增长 方程 $\dfrac{dy}{dt}=ky$ 说变化率与数量成比例——给出指数增长或衰减(exponential growth or decay)。分离变量产生
$$y=y_0 e^{kt},$$以 $k>0$ 为增长而 $k<0$ 为衰减。这为不受限的种群增长、放射性衰变和连续复利建模。
A cooling cup of coffee: Newton's law of cooling is a classic differential equation model 探索An exponential growth/decay model
y = a·e^(bx) + c
The equation $dy/dt=ky$ has exponential solutions: quantity changes at a rate proportional to itself, giving unbounded growth ($k>0$) or decay to zero ($k<0$).
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 exponential growth or decay 指数增长 zhǐ shù zēng zhǎng 7.9
微分方程的逻辑斯谛模型
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge FUN-7
Solving differential equations allows us to determine functions and develop models.FUN-7.H
Interpret the meaning of the logistic growth model in context. BC ONLY- FUN-7.H.1 The model for logistic growth that arises from the statement "The rate of change of a quantity is jointly proportional to the size of the quantity and the difference between the quantity and the carrying capacity" is $\dfrac{dy}{dt} = ky(a - y)$. BC ONLY
- FUN-7.H.2 The logistic differential equation and initial conditions can be interpreted without solving the differential equation. BC ONLY
- FUN-7.H.3 The limiting value (carrying capacity) of a logistic differential equation as the independent variable approaches infinity can be determined using the logistic growth model and initial conditions. BC ONLY
- FUN-7.H.4 The value of the dependent variable in a logistic differential equation at the point when it is changing fastest can be determined using the logistic growth model and initial conditions. BC ONLY
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
真实的增长受资源限制,所以逻辑斯蒂模型(logistic model)加上一个环境容纳量(carrying capacity)$L$:
$$\frac{dP}{dt}=kP\!\left(1-\frac{P}{L}\right).$$当 $P$ 小时增长几乎是指数的、随着 $P$ 接近 $L$ 减慢,并在 $P=L$ 停止。关键的 BC 事实:种群在 $L$ 处趋平($\lim_{t\to\infty}P=L$),而它在 $P=\tfrac{L}{2}$ 时增长最快(S 形曲线的拐点)。你被期望直接从方程读出 $L$ 和最快增长值。Worked example. 对于 $\dfrac{dP}{dt}=0.05\,P\!\left(1-\dfrac{P}{2000}\right)$,环境容纳量是 $L=2000$(种群在那里趋平),而增长在 $P=\dfrac{L}{2}=1000$ 时最快——两者都直接从方程读出,不需要求解。

逻辑斯蒂模型在 P=L/2 增长最快并在环境容纳量 L 处趋平 词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 logistic model 逻辑斯蒂模型 luó jí sī dì mó xíng carrying capacity 环境容纳量 huán jìng róng nà liàng 7.9
考试技巧
- 通过把所有 $y$ 移到一侧而所有 $x$ 移到另一侧、然后积分两侧(加一次 $+C$)来解一个可分离方程。
- 用初始条件求 $C$(一个特解)。
- 草绘或读一个斜率场:小线段在每个点显示 $\tfrac{dy}{dx}$,而一条解曲线跟随它们。
- 辨认指数模型 $\tfrac{dy}{dt}=ky\Rightarrow y=Ce^{kt}$(增长/衰减)。
- 一个微分方程给出斜率——你必须积分以恢复函数。
-
8
积分的应用
8.1
求函数在区间上的平均值
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge CHA-4
Definite integrals allow us to solve problems involving the accumulation of change over an interval.CHA-4.B
Determine the average value of a function using definite integrals.- CHA-4.B.1 The average value of a continuous function $f$ over an interval $[a, b]$ is $\dfrac{1}{b-a}\int_a^b f(x)\,dx$.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
$f$ 在 $[a,b]$ 上的平均值(average value)是积分除以宽度:
$$f_{\text{avg}}=\frac{1}{b-a}\int_a^b f(x)\,dx.$$它是一个矩形要有与 $f$ 下方区域相同面积所需的常数高度。不要把它与平均变化率(它用导数)搞混。Worked example. $f(x)=x^2$ 在 $[0,3]$ 上的平均值是 $\dfrac{1}{3}\displaystyle\int_0^3 x^2\,dx=\dfrac13\left[\dfrac{x^3}{3}\right]_0^3=\dfrac13(9)=3$。
探索The average value of a function
y = ax³ + bx² + cx + d
The average value of $f$ on $[a,b]$ is its integral divided by the width — the constant height whose rectangle has the same area as under the curve.
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 average value 平均值 píng jūn zhí 8.2
用积分联系函数的位置、速度与加速度
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge CHA-4
Definite integrals allow us to solve problems involving the accumulation of change over an interval.CHA-4.C
Determine values for positions and rates of change using definite integrals in problems involving rectilinear motion.- CHA-4.C.1 For a particle in rectilinear motion over an interval of time, the definite integral of velocity represents the particle's displacement over the interval of time, and the definite integral of speed represents the particle's total distance traveled over the interval of time.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
对于直线运动,积分反转求导:
$$v(t)=\int a(t)\,dt,\qquad s(t)=\int v(t)\,dt.$$两个关键的区别:位移(displacement)是 $\int_a^b v\,dt$(位置的净变化),而总路程(total distance)是 $\int_a^b |v|\,dt$(在 $v$ 改变符号的地方拆分)。速率是 $|v|$。词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 displacement 位移 wèi yí total distance 总路程 zǒng lù chéng 8.3
在实际情境中运用累积函数与定积分
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge CHA-4
Definite integrals allow us to solve problems involving the accumulation of change over an interval.CHA-4.D
Interpret the meaning of a definite integral in accumulation problems.- CHA-4.D.1 A function defined as an integral represents an accumulation of a rate of change.
- CHA-4.D.2 The definite integral of the rate of change of a quantity over an interval gives the net change of that quantity over that interval.
CHA-4.E
Determine net change using definite integrals in applied contexts.- CHA-4.E.1 The definite integral can be used to express information about accumulation and net change in many applied contexts.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
当一个率被给出(流量、每天的销售)时,定积分给出累积总量,而 $\int_a^b R(t)\,dt$ 携带 $R$ 乘时间的单位。一个常见的设置:初始数量 $+\int(\text{rate in}-\text{rate out})\,dt$ 给出一个较后时刻的数量。总是在上下文里、带单位解释答案。
8.4
求以 x 为自变量表示的曲线之间的面积
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge CHA-5
Definite integrals allow us to solve problems involving the accumulation of change in area or volume over an interval.CHA-5.A
Calculate areas in the plane using the definite integral.- CHA-5.A.1 Areas of regions in the plane can be calculated with definite integrals.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
$y=f(x)$(顶部)和 $y=g(x)$(底部)从 $a$ 到 $b$ 之间的面积是
$$\int_a^b\big(f(x)-g(x)\big)\,dx.$$为限找到交点,并总是减顶部减底部。
两条曲线之间的面积是顶部减底部的积分 Worked example. 在 $y=x$ 和 $y=x^2$ 之间(在 $x=0,1$ 相交,$y=x$ 在顶部),面积是 $\displaystyle\int_0^1 (x-x^2)\,dx=\left[\dfrac{x^2}{2}-\dfrac{x^3}{3}\right]_0^1=\dfrac16$。
8.5
求以 y 为自变量表示的曲线之间的面积
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge CHA-5
Definite integrals allow us to solve problems involving the accumulation of change in area or volume over an interval.CHA-5.A
Calculate areas in the plane using the definite integral.- CHA-5.A.2 Areas of regions in the plane can be calculated using functions of either $x$ or $y$.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
当曲线更容易描述为 $x=f(y)$ 时,改为对 $y$ 积分,用右减左:
$$\int_c^d\big(f_{\text{right}}(y)-g_{\text{left}}(y)\big)\,dy.$$选择对 $y$ 积分能避免把区域拆分成几块。8.6
求相交多于两点的曲线之间的面积
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge CHA-5
Definite integrals allow us to solve problems involving the accumulation of change in area or volume over an interval.CHA-5.A
Calculate areas in the plane using the definite integral.- CHA-5.A.3 Areas of certain regions in the plane may be calculated using a sum of two or more definite integrals or by evaluating a definite integral of the absolute value of the difference of two functions.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
若两条曲线相交几次,顶部和底部交换。在每个交点处拆分区域并用正确的顶部减底部积分每一块(或用 $\int|f-g|$),然后把这些块相加。
8.7
用横截面求体积:正方形与矩形
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge CHA-5
Definite integrals allow us to solve problems involving the accumulation of change in area or volume over an interval.CHA-5.B
Calculate volumes of solids with known cross sections using definite integrals.- CHA-5.B.1 Volumes of solids with square and rectangular cross sections can be found using definite integrals and the area formulas for these shapes.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
若一个立体的、垂直于 $x$ 轴的横截面(cross sections)是正方形或矩形,积分它们的面积。以边长等于两条曲线之间的距离,一个正方形横截面给出
$$V=\int_a^b \big(f(x)-g(x)\big)^2\,dx.$$方法总是"积分横截面面积"。词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 cross sections 横截面 héng jié miàn 8.8
用横截面求体积:三角形与半圆
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge CHA-5
Definite integrals allow us to solve problems involving the accumulation of change in area or volume over an interval.CHA-5.B
Calculate volumes of solids with known cross sections using definite integrals.- CHA-5.B.2 Volumes of solids with triangular cross sections can be found using definite integrals and the area formulas for these shapes.
- CHA-5.B.3 Volumes of solids with semicircular and other geometrically defined cross sections can be found using definite integrals and the area formulas for these shapes.
- Illustrative examples for CHA-5.B.3:
- The volume of a funnel whose cross sections are circles can be found using the area formula for a circle and definite integrals (see 2016 AB Exam FRQ #5(b)).
- The volume of a solid whose cross sectional area is defined using a function can be found using the known area function and a definite integral (see 2009 AB Exam FRQ #4(c)).
- Illustrative examples for CHA-5.B.3:
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
相同的思想,不同的面积公式:对于等边三角形横截面用 $A=\tfrac{\sqrt3}{4}s^2$,而对于半圆的用 $A=\tfrac{\pi}{8}s^2$(以 $s$ 为曲线之间的距离)。代入面积公式并积分。
8.9
圆盘法求体积:绕 x 轴或 y 轴旋转
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge CHA-5
Definite integrals allow us to solve problems involving the accumulation of change in area or volume over an interval.CHA-5.C
Calculate volumes of solids of revolution using definite integrals.- CHA-5.C.1 Volumes of solids of revolution around the $x$- or $y$-axis may be found by using definite integrals with the disc method.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
旋转体:圆盘法 把一个区域绕一个轴旋转制造一个横截面是圆盘的立体。圆盘法(disc method)积分 $\pi(\text{radius})^2$:
$$V=\pi\int_a^b \big(R(x)\big)^2\,dx,$$其中半径 $R$ 是从曲线到轴的距离。绕 $y$ 轴旋转时用 $dy$。
圆盘法:把 y=f(x) 绕轴旋转扫出半径 f(x) 的圆盘 Worked example. 把 $y=\sqrt{x}$ 从 $0$ 到 $4$ 下方的区域绕 $x$ 轴旋转给出半径 $\sqrt{x}$ 的圆盘:$V=\pi\displaystyle\int_0^4 (\sqrt{x})^2\,dx=\pi\int_0^4 x\,dx=8\pi$。

把一个区域绕一个轴旋转扫出一个旋转体 词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 disc method 圆盘法 yuán pán fǎ 8.10
圆盘法求体积:绕其他轴旋转
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge CHA-5
Definite integrals allow us to solve problems involving the accumulation of change in area or volume over an interval.CHA-5.C
Calculate volumes of solids of revolution using definite integrals.- CHA-5.C.2 Volumes of solids of revolution around any horizontal or vertical line in the plane may be found by using definite integrals with the disc method.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
当旋转轴是一条像 $y=k$(不是一个轴)的水平或垂直线时,半径调整:$R=|f(x)-k|$。把半径设置为从曲线到那条线的距离,然后像之前一样积分 $\pi R^2$。
8.11
垫圈法求体积:绕 x 轴或 y 轴旋转
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge CHA-5
Definite integrals allow us to solve problems involving the accumulation of change in area or volume over an interval.CHA-5.C
Calculate volumes of solids of revolution using definite integrals.- CHA-5.C.3 Volumes of solids of revolution around the $x$- or $y$-axis whose cross sections are ring shaped may be found using definite integrals with the washer method.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
垫圈法求体积 若区域不触及轴,旋转留下一个洞,所以横截面是垫圈(washers)(环)。垫圈法(washer method)减去内圆盘:
$$V=\pi\int_a^b\Big(R_{\text{outer}}^2-R_{\text{inner}}^2\Big)\,dx.$$把外半径和内半径辨别为从每条曲线到轴的距离。词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 washer method 垫圈法 diàn juàn fǎ 8.12
垫圈法求体积:绕其他轴旋转
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge CHA-5
Definite integrals allow us to solve problems involving the accumulation of change in area or volume over an interval.CHA-5.C
Calculate volumes of solids of revolution using definite integrals.- CHA-5.C.4 Volumes of solids of revolution around any horizontal or vertical line whose cross sections are ring shaped may be found using definite integrals with the washer method.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
与圆盘一样,绕一条线 $y=k$ 或 $x=k$ 旋转移动两个半径——每个变成从它的曲线到那条线的距离。草绘区域和轴、标注 $R_{\text{outer}}$ 和 $R_{\text{inner}}$,然后积分平方之差。
8.13
光滑平面曲线的弧长与所经过的距离
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge CHA-6
Definite integrals allow us to solve problems involving the accumulation of change in length over an interval.CHA-6.A
Determine the length of a curve in the plane defined by a function, using a definite integral. BC ONLY- CHA-6.A.1 The length of a planar curve defined by a function can be calculated using a definite integral. BC ONLY
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
$y=f(x)$ 从 $a$ 到 $b$ 的弧长(arc length)是
$$L=\int_a^b\sqrt{1+\big(f'(x)\big)^2}\,dx.$$这个 BC 独有的公式来自把微小的斜边 $\sqrt{dx^2+dy^2}$ 相加。相同的思想给出一个质点沿一条弯曲路径行进的距离。Worked example. 求 $y=\tfrac{2}{3}x^{3/2}$ 从 $x=0$ 到 $x=3$ 的弧长。这里 $f'(x)=x^{1/2}$,所以 $1+(f')^2=1+x$ 而
$$L=\int_0^3\sqrt{1+x}\,dx=\left[\tfrac{2}{3}(1+x)^{3/2}\right]_0^3=\tfrac{2}{3}(8-1)=\tfrac{14}{3}.$$词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 arc length 弧长 hú zhǎng 8.13
考试技巧
- 曲线之间的面积是 $\int(\text{top}-\text{bottom})\,dx$ ——为限找到交点并保持顶部减底部。
- 对于一个旋转体,加起面积 $\pi r^2$(或 $\pi(R^2-r^2)$)的圆盘/垫圈横截面。
- $f$ 在 $[a,b]$ 上的平均值是 $\tfrac{1}{b-a}\int_a^b f\,dx$。
- 累积变化是一个率的 $\int$:总 = 初始值 $+\int_a^b(\text{rate})\,dt$。
- 积分意味着"加起无穷多个微小的片段"——把被积函数设置为一个薄切片。
-
9
参数方程、极坐标与向量值函数
9.1
定义参数方程与其求导
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge CHA-3
Derivatives allow us to solve real-world problems involving rates of change.CHA-3.G
Calculate derivatives of parametric functions. BC ONLY- CHA-3.G.1 Methods for calculating derivatives of real-valued functions can be extended to parametric functions. BC ONLY
- CHA-3.G.2 For a curve defined parametrically, the value of $\dfrac{dy}{dx}$ at a point on the curve is the slope of the line tangent to the curve at that point. $\dfrac{dy}{dx}$, the slope of the line tangent to a curve defined using parametric equations, can be determined by dividing $\dfrac{dy}{dt}$ by $\dfrac{dx}{dt}$, provided $\dfrac{dx}{dt}$ does not equal zero. BC ONLY
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
参数方程(parametric equations)把 $x$ 和 $y$ 各作为一个参数(parameter)$t$(常常是时间)的函数给出:$x=x(t)$、$y=y(t)$。它们描出一条不必是 $x$ 的一个函数的曲线。曲线的斜率用链式法则求出:
$$\frac{dy}{dx}=\frac{dy/dt}{dx/dt}\qquad(dx/dt\neq0).$$Worked example. 对于 $x=t^2$、$y=t^3-t$,求 $t=2$ 处的斜率。这里 $\dfrac{dx}{dt}=2t$ 而 $\dfrac{dy}{dt}=3t^2-1$,所以 $\dfrac{dy}{dx}=\dfrac{3t^2-1}{2t}$;在 $t=2$ 这是 $\dfrac{11}{4}$。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Parametric equations 参数方程 cān shù fāng chéng 9.2
参数方程的二阶导数
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge CHA-3
Derivatives allow us to solve real-world problems involving rates of change.CHA-3.G
Calculate derivatives of parametric functions. BC ONLY- CHA-3.G.3 $\dfrac{d^2 y}{dx^2}$ can be calculated by dividing $\dfrac{d}{dt}\left(\dfrac{dy}{dx}\right)$ by $\dfrac{dx}{dt}$. BC ONLY
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
二阶导数不是 $\dfrac{d^2y/dt^2}{d^2x/dt^2}$。相反,对 $t$ 求导一阶导数,然后再次除以 $dx/dt$:
$$\frac{d^2y}{dx^2}=\frac{\dfrac{d}{dt}\!\left(\dfrac{dy}{dx}\right)}{dx/dt}.$$用它来测试一条参数曲线的凹凸性。9.3
求参数方程给定曲线的弧长
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge CHA-6
Definite integrals allow us to solve problems involving the accumulation of change in length over an interval.CHA-6.B
Determine the length of a curve in the plane defined by parametric functions, using a definite integral. BC ONLY- CHA-6.B.1 The length of a parametrically defined curve can be calculated using a definite integral. BC ONLY
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
一条参数曲线在 $t$ 从 $a$ 到 $b$ 的长度是
$$L=\int_a^b\sqrt{\left(\frac{dx}{dt}\right)^2+\left(\frac{dy}{dt}\right)^2}\,dt.$$这是弧长的参数版本——在参数上把微小的斜边 $\sqrt{dx^2+dy^2}$ 相加。9.4
定义向量值函数与其求导
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge CHA-3
Derivatives allow us to solve real-world problems involving rates of change.CHA-3.H
Calculate derivatives of vector-valued functions. BC ONLY- CHA-3.H.1 Methods for calculating derivatives of real-valued functions can be extended to vector-valued functions. BC ONLY
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
一个向量值函数(vector-valued function)$\vec{r}(t)=\langle x(t),\,y(t)\rangle$ 为每个 $t$ 给出一个位置向量。按分量求导:速度是 $\vec{v}(t)=\langle x'(t),\,y'(t)\rangle$ 而加速度是 $\vec{a}(t)=\langle x''(t),\,y''(t)\rangle$。速率是模 $|\vec{v}|=\sqrt{x'^2+y'^2}$。

一个向量值直线:从 a 开始,然后滑动方向 b 的 t 倍 探索Add vector-valued components
A vector-valued function packs an $x(t)$ and $y(t)$ into one vector. Differentiating each component gives the velocity vector, tangent to the path.
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 vector-valued function 向量值函数 xiàng liàng zhí hán shù 9.5
向量值函数的积分
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge FUN-8
Solving an initial value problem allows us to determine an expression for the position of a particle moving in the plane.FUN-8.A
Determine a particular solution given a rate vector and initial conditions. BC ONLY- FUN-8.A.1 Methods for calculating integrals of real-valued functions can be extended to parametric or vector-valued functions. BC ONLY
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
逐分量积分一个向量函数。给定加速度或速度加一个初始条件,积分每个分量并用条件求常数——从加速度恢复速度,或从速度恢复位置。
9.6
用参数方程与向量值函数求解运动问题
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge FUN-8
Solving an initial value problem allows us to determine an expression for the position of a particle moving in the plane.FUN-8.B
Determine values for positions and rates of change in problems involving planar motion. BC ONLY- FUN-8.B.1 Derivatives can be used to determine velocity, speed, and acceleration for a particle moving along a curve in the plane defined using parametric or vector-valued functions. BC ONLY
- FUN-8.B.2 For a particle in planar motion over an interval of time, the definite integral of the velocity vector represents the particle's displacement (net change in position) over the interval of time, from which we might determine its position. The definite integral of speed represents the particle's total distance traveled over the interval of time. BC ONLY
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
对于一个在一个平面里移动的质点:位置是 $\langle x(t),y(t)\rangle$、速度和加速度是它的导数、速率是 $|\vec v|$,而在 $[a,b]$ 上的行进距离(distance traveled)是
$$\int_a^b\sqrt{x'(t)^2+y'(t)^2}\,dt.$$考试技能: 这些平面运动问题几乎每年在 BC 自由回答上出现——熟练地求速率、一个较后时刻的位置(初始点加速度的积分),和总距离。
Worked example. 一个质点有位置 $\langle t^2,\ t^3-t\rangle$。它的速度是 $\langle 2t,\ 3t^2-1\rangle$,所以在 $t=1$ 速度是 $\langle 2,\ 2\rangle$ 而速率是 $\sqrt{2^2+2^2}=2\sqrt{2}$。它在 $t=2$ 的位置是 $\langle 4,\ 6\rangle$。
9.7
定义极坐标与在极坐标形式下求导
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge FUN-3
Recognizing opportunities to apply derivative rules can simplify differentiation.FUN-3.G
Calculate derivatives of functions written in polar coordinates. BC ONLY- FUN-3.G.1 Methods for calculating derivatives of real-valued functions can be extended to functions in polar coordinates. BC ONLY
- FUN-3.G.2 For a curve given by a polar equation $r = f(\theta)$, derivatives of $r$, $x$, and $y$ with respect to $\theta$, and first and second derivatives of $y$ with respect to $x$ can provide information about the curve. BC ONLY
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
极坐标曲线的描绘 极坐标(polar coordinates)由一个点离原点的距离 $r$ 和角 $\theta$ 定位它:用 $x=r\cos\theta$、$y=r\sin\theta$ 转换。一条极曲线 $r=f(\theta)$ 是一条 $\theta$ 的参数曲线,所以它的斜率是
$$\frac{dy}{dx}=\frac{dy/d\theta}{dx/d\theta},\quad\text{with } x=r\cos\theta,\ y=r\sin\theta.$$
极坐标由一个点的距离 r 和角 theta 给出它 探索Plot a polar curve
In polar coordinates a point is a distance $r$ at angle $\theta$. Letting $r$ depend on $\theta$ traces curves like this cardioid.
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Polar coordinates 极坐标 jí zuò biāo 9.8
求极坐标区域的面积或单条极坐标曲线所围面积
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge CHA-5
Definite integrals allow us to solve problems involving the accumulation of change in area or volume over an interval.CHA-5.D
Calculate areas of regions defined by polar curves using definite integrals. BC ONLY- CHA-5.D.1 The concept of calculating areas in rectangular coordinates can be extended to polar coordinates. BC ONLY
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
一条极曲线 $r=f(\theta)$ 从 $\alpha$ 到 $\beta$ 扫出的面积是
$$A=\frac12\int_\alpha^\beta \big(f(\theta)\big)^2\,d\theta.$$区域是薄的三角扇形的一个"扇子";选择正确的 $\theta$ 限(曲线在哪里开始和结束描出区域)是主要的挑战。Worked example. 求玫瑰线 $r=2\sin(2\theta)$ 的一个花瓣的面积($\theta$ 从 $0$ 到 $\tfrac{\pi}{2}$ 描出)。用 $\sin^2 u=\tfrac12(1-\cos 2u)$,
$$A=\frac12\int_0^{\pi/2}(2\sin 2\theta)^2\,d\theta=\int_0^{\pi/2}(1-\cos 4\theta)\,d\theta=\left[\theta-\tfrac{\sin 4\theta}{4}\right]_0^{\pi/2}=\frac{\pi}{2}.$$
阴影区域是从 $\alpha$ 到 $\beta$ 扫出的薄扇形的一个扇子;每个有面积 $\tfrac12 r^2\,d\theta$,所以总量是 $\tfrac12\int_\alpha^\beta r^2\,d\theta$。 9.9
求两条极坐标曲线所围区域的面积
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge CHA-5
Definite integrals allow us to solve problems involving the accumulation of change in area or volume over an interval.CHA-5.D
Calculate areas of regions defined by polar curves using definite integrals. BC ONLY- CHA-5.D.2 Areas of regions bounded by polar curves can be calculated with definite integrals. BC ONLY
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
对于一条外曲线 $r_1$ 和一条内曲线 $r_2$ 之间的面积,减去扇形:
$$A=\frac12\int_\alpha^\beta\big(r_1^2-r_2^2\big)\,d\theta.$$先找到交角(令 $r_1=r_2$),并小心哪条曲线在每个区间上是外面的——它们能交换。9.9
考试技巧
- 对于参数曲线,$\tfrac{dy}{dx}=\tfrac{dy/dt}{dx/dt}$;速率是 $\sqrt{(dx/dt)^2+(dy/dt)^2}$。
- 一个向量值函数携带相同的信息——逐分量求导/积分它。
- 在极里,用 $x=r\cos\theta$、$y=r\sin\theta$ 转换;扫出的面积是 $\tfrac12\int r^2\,d\theta$。
- 注意描出的方向($dx/dt$ 的符号)并为极面积设定正确的 $\theta$ 限。
- 当有帮助时消去参数以恢复普通的 $y$-对-$x$ 形状。
-
10
无穷数列与级数
10.1
定义收敛与发散的无穷级数
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge LIM-7
Applying limits may allow us to determine the finite sum of infinitely many terms.LIM-7.A
Determine whether a series converges or diverges. BC ONLY- LIM-7.A.1 The $n$th partial sum is defined as the sum of the first $n$ terms of a series. BC ONLY
- LIM-7.A.2 An infinite series of numbers converges to a real number $S$ (or has sum $S$), if and only if the limit of its sequence of partial sums exists and equals $S$. BC ONLY
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
一个无穷级数(infinite series)加起无穷多项,$\sum_{n=1}^\infty a_n$。它的值被定义为部分和(partial sums)$S_N=a_1+a_2+\cdots+a_N$ 的极限。若 $S_N$ 趋近一个有限数 $L$,级数收敛(converges)到 $L$;否则它发散(diverges)。每个收敛问题真的是一个关于部分和极限的问题。

对于 $a=1,\ r=\tfrac12$ 的几何级数,部分和 $S_1,S_2,S_3,\dots$ 向极限 $\dfrac{a}{1-r}=2$ 爬升——那个极限是级数的值。 词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 infinite series 无穷级数 wú qióng jí shù partial sums 部分和 bù fèn hé converges 收敛 shōu liǎn diverges 发散 fā sàn geometric series 几何级数 jǐ hé jí shù 10.2
运用几何级数
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge LIM-7
Applying limits may allow us to determine the finite sum of infinitely many terms.LIM-7.A
Determine whether a series converges or diverges. BC ONLY- LIM-7.A.3 A geometric series is a series with a constant ratio between successive terms. BC ONLY
- LIM-7.A.4 If $a$ is a real number and $r$ is a real number such that $|r| < 1$, then the geometric series $\sum_{n=0}^{\infty} ar^n = \dfrac{a}{1-r}$. BC ONLY
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
等比级数与收敛 一个几何级数(geometric series)$\sum ar^{n}$ 在项之间有一个常数比(ratio)$r$。它恰好当 $|r|<1$ 时收敛,而那时
$$\sum_{n=0}^\infty ar^n=\frac{a}{1-r}.$$这是你能精确求和的那一个级数,而它是这个单元后面幂级数的基础。Worked example. 求 $3+\tfrac32+\tfrac34+\tfrac38+\cdots$ 的和。这里 $a=3$ 而 $r=\tfrac12$(带 $|r|<1$),所以和是 $\dfrac{a}{1-r}=\dfrac{3}{1-\tfrac12}=6$。

一个几何数列在每一步乘以相同的比 探索When a geometric series converges
A geometric series $\sum ar^n$ converges only when $|r|<1$, summing to $\frac{a}{1-r}$. Change the ratio and watch the partial sums settle or blow up.
10.3
判断发散的第 n 项检验
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge LIM-7
Applying limits may allow us to determine the finite sum of infinitely many terms.LIM-7.A
Determine whether a series converges or diverges. BC ONLY- LIM-7.A.5 The $n$th term test is a test for divergence of a series. BC ONLY
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
若项不收缩到零,和就不能稳定:若 $\lim_{n\to\infty}a_n\neq0$,级数发散。这只是一个发散的判别法——若项确实趋于零,判别法不确定(级数仍可能发散,像调和级数)。总是先检查这个快速的判别法。
10.4
判断收敛的积分检验
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge LIM-7
Applying limits may allow us to determine the finite sum of infinitely many terms.LIM-7.A
Determine whether a series converges or diverges. BC ONLY- LIM-7.A.6 The integral test is a method to determine whether a series converges or diverges. BC ONLY
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
若对于一个正的、递减的、连续的 $f$ 有 $a_n=f(n)$,那么 $\sum a_n$ 和 $\int_1^\infty f(x)\,dx$ 都收敛或都发散。积分判别法(integral test)把一个级数问题变成一个反常积分问题,而它是证明下面 p-级数规则的依据。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 integral test 积分判别法 jī fēn pàn bié fǎ 10.5
调和级数与 p-级数
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge LIM-7
Applying limits may allow us to determine the finite sum of infinitely many terms.LIM-7.A
Determine whether a series converges or diverges. BC ONLY- LIM-7.A.7 In addition to geometric series, common series of numbers include the harmonic series, the alternating harmonic series, and $p$-series. BC ONLY
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
一个 p-级数(p-series)$\sum \dfrac{1}{n^p}$ 若 $p>1$ 收敛而若 $p\le1$ 发散。特殊情况 $p=1$,$\sum\dfrac1n$,是调和级数(harmonic series)——它发散,即使它的项趋于零(一个著名的、必知的事实)。p-级数族是比较判别法的标准尺度。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 harmonic series 调和级数 tiáo hé jí shù 10.6
判断收敛的比较检验
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge LIM-7
Applying limits may allow us to determine the finite sum of infinitely many terms.LIM-7.A
Determine whether a series converges or diverges. BC ONLY- LIM-7.A.8 The comparison test is a method to determine whether a series converges or diverges. BC ONLY
- LIM-7.A.9 The limit comparison test is a method to determine whether a series converges or diverges. BC ONLY
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
把一个不熟悉的级数与一个已知的(一个 p-级数或几何级数)比较:
- 直接比较(direct comparison):若 $0\le a_n\le b_n$ 而 $\sum b_n$ 收敛,$\sum a_n$ 也收敛;若 $a_n\ge b_n\ge0$ 而 $\sum b_n$ 发散,$\sum a_n$ 也发散。
- 极限比较(limit comparison):若 $\lim\dfrac{a_n}{b_n}$ 是一个有限正数,这两个级数做相同的事。当项只是表现得像一个已知级数时这更容易。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Direct comparison 直接比较 zhí jiē bǐ jiào Limit comparison 极限比较 jí xiàn bǐ jiào 10.7
判断收敛的交错级数检验
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge LIM-7
Applying limits may allow us to determine the finite sum of infinitely many terms.LIM-7.A
Determine whether a series converges or diverges. BC ONLY- LIM-7.A.10 The alternating series test is a method to determine whether an alternating series converges. BC ONLY
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
一个交错级数(alternating series)有交换符号的项,$\sum(-1)^n b_n$。它收敛,若 $b_n$ 是正的、递减的,而 $\lim b_n=0$。这让像 $\sum\dfrac{(-1)^n}{n}$ 这样的级数收敛,即使没有符号的相同项(调和级数)发散。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 alternating series 交错级数 jiāo cuò jí shù 10.8
判断收敛的比值检验
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge LIM-7
Applying limits may allow us to determine the finite sum of infinitely many terms.LIM-7.A
Determine whether a series converges or diverges. BC ONLY- LIM-7.A.11 The ratio test is a method to determine whether a series of numbers converges or diverges. BC ONLY
- Exclusion statement: The nth term test for divergence, and the integral test, comparison test, limit comparison test, alternating series test, and ratio test for convergence are assessed on the AP Calculus BC Exam. Other methods are not assessed on the exam. However, teachers may include additional methods in the course, if time permits.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
比值判别法(ratio test)考察 $L=\lim_{n\to\infty}\left|\dfrac{a_{n+1}}{a_n}\right|$:
- $L<1$:级数绝对收敛;
- $L>1$:它发散;
- $L=1$:不确定。
它是带阶乘(factorials)或 $n$ 次幂的级数的首选判别法,而它正是你如何找到一个幂级数的收敛半径。
Worked example. 判别 $\displaystyle\sum \frac{n}{2^n}$。比是 $\left|\dfrac{a_{n+1}}{a_n}\right|=\dfrac{n+1}{2^{n+1}}\cdot\dfrac{2^n}{n}=\dfrac{n+1}{2n}\to\dfrac12<1$,所以级数收敛。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 ratio test 比值判别法 bǐ zhí pàn bié fǎ 10.9
判断绝对收敛或条件收敛
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge LIM-7
Applying limits may allow us to determine the finite sum of infinitely many terms.LIM-7.A
Determine whether a series converges or diverges. BC ONLY- LIM-7.A.12 A series may be absolutely convergent, conditionally convergent, or divergent. BC ONLY
- LIM-7.A.13 If a series converges absolutely, then it converges. BC ONLY
- LIM-7.A.14 If a series converges absolutely, then any series obtained from it by regrouping or rearranging the terms has the same value. BC ONLY
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
一个级数绝对收敛(converges absolutely)若 $\sum|a_n|$ 收敛。它条件收敛(converges conditionally)若 $\sum a_n$ 收敛但 $\sum|a_n|$ 发散(经典的例子是 $\sum\dfrac{(-1)^n}{n}$)。绝对收敛是更强的性质;条件收敛依赖符号的抵消。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 converges absolutely 绝对收敛 jué duì shōu liǎn converges conditionally 条件收敛 tiáo jiàn shōu liǎn 10.10
交错级数的误差界
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge LIM-7
Applying limits may allow us to determine the finite sum of infinitely many terms.LIM-7.B
Approximate the sum of a series. BC ONLY- LIM-7.B.1 If an alternating series converges by the alternating series test, then the alternating series error bound can be used to bound how far a partial sum is from the value of the infinite series. BC ONLY
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
对于一个收敛的交错级数,在第 $N$ 个部分和停止的误差不大于第一个省略的项:
$$|S-S_N|\le b_{N+1}.$$这个简单、强大的界让你能说多少项保证一个想要的准确度。10.11
求函数的泰勒多项式近似
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge LIM-8
Power series allow us to represent associated functions on an appropriate interval.LIM-8.A
Represent a function at a point as a Taylor polynomial. BC ONLY- LIM-8.A.1 The coefficient of the $n$th degree term in a Taylor polynomial for a function $f$ centered at $x = a$ is $\dfrac{f^{(n)}(a)}{n!}$. BC ONLY
- LIM-8.A.2 In many cases, as the degree of a Taylor polynomial increases, the $n$th degree polynomial will approach the original function over some interval. BC ONLY
LIM-8.B
Approximate function values using a Taylor polynomial. BC ONLY- LIM-8.B.1 Taylor polynomials for a function $f$ centered at $x = a$ can be used to approximate function values of $f$ near $x = a$. BC ONLY
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
泰勒级数逼近 一个泰勒多项式(Taylor polynomial)用一个函数在中心 $x=a$ 处的导数近似它:
$$P_n(x)=\sum_{k=0}^{n}\frac{f^{(k)}(a)}{k!}(x-a)^k.$$每个增加的项匹配多一个导数,所以多项式在 $a$ 附近更紧密地贴合曲线。在 $a=0$ 处为中心它是一个麦克劳林多项式(Maclaurin polynomial)。
$\sin x$ 的麦克劳林多项式——$T_1=x$、$T_3$、$T_5$——每个在 $0$ 处匹配多一个导数,所以每个在偏离之前在更宽的区间上贴合 $\sin x$。 考试技能: 能够从一张导数值的表构建一个泰勒多项式并用它来估计一个函数值。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Taylor polynomial 泰勒多项式 tài lēi duō xiàng shì 10.12
拉格朗日误差界
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge LIM-8
Power series allow us to represent associated functions on an appropriate interval.LIM-8.C
Determine the error bound associated with a Taylor polynomial approximation. BC ONLY- LIM-8.C.1 The Lagrange error bound can be used to determine a maximum interval for the error of a Taylor polynomial approximation to a function. BC ONLY
- LIM-8.C.2 In some situations, the alternating series error bound can be used to bound the error of a Taylor polynomial approximation to the value of a function. BC ONLY
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
拉格朗日误差界(Lagrange error bound)界定一个泰勒多项式能离真值多远:
$$|R_n(x)|\le\frac{\max\big|f^{(n+1)}(z)\big|}{(n+1)!}\,|x-a|^{\,n+1}.$$你在区间上界定第 $(n+1)$ 个导数,然后计算——证明一个泰勒估计足够准确的标准方式。词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Lagrange error bound 拉格朗日误差界 lā gé lǎng rì wù chā jiè 10.13
幂级数的收敛半径与收敛区间
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge LIM-8
Power series allow us to represent associated functions on an appropriate interval.LIM-8.D
Determine the radius of convergence and interval of convergence for a power series. BC ONLY- LIM-8.D.1 A power series is a series of the form $\sum_{n=0}^{\infty} a_n (x-r)^n$, where $n$ is a non-negative integer, $\{a_n\}$ is a sequence of real numbers, and $r$ is a real number. BC ONLY
- LIM-8.D.2 If a power series converges, it either converges at a single point or has an interval of convergence. BC ONLY
- LIM-8.D.3 The ratio test can be used to determine the radius of convergence of a power series. BC ONLY
- LIM-8.D.4 The radius of convergence of a power series can be used to identify an open interval on which the series converges, but it is necessary to test both endpoints of the interval to determine the interval of convergence. BC ONLY
- LIM-8.D.5 If a power series has a positive radius of convergence, then the power series is the Taylor series of the function to which it converges over the open interval. BC ONLY
- LIM-8.D.6 The radius of convergence of a power series obtained by term-by-term differentiation or term-by-term integration is the same as the radius of convergence of the original power series. BC ONLY
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
一个幂级数(power series)$\sum c_n(x-a)^n$ 对中心 $a$ 的一个收敛半径(radius of convergence)$R$ 之内的 $x$ 收敛。用比值判别法求 $R$。然后分别测试两个端点(比值判别法在那里不确定)以陈述完整的收敛区间(interval of convergence)——包括或排除每个端点。
Worked example. 求 $\displaystyle\sum \frac{x^n}{n}$ 的收敛半径。比值判别法给出 $\left|\dfrac{x^{n+1}}{n+1}\cdot\dfrac{n}{x^n}\right|=|x|\dfrac{n}{n+1}\to|x|$,它在 $|x|<1$ 时 $<1$,所以 $R=1$。测试端点,$x=-1$ 给出收敛的交错调和级数而 $x=1$ 给出发散的调和级数,所以区间是 $[-1,1)$。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 power series 幂级数 mì jí shù radius of convergence 收敛半径 shōu liǎn bàn jìng interval of convergence 收敛区间 shōu liǎn qū jiān 10.14
求函数的泰勒级数或麦克劳林级数
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge LIM-8
Power series allow us to represent associated functions on an appropriate interval.LIM-8.E
Represent a function as a Taylor series or a Maclaurin series. BC ONLY- LIM-8.E.1 A Taylor polynomial for $f(x)$ is a partial sum of the Taylor series for $f(x)$. BC ONLY
LIM-8.F
Interpret Taylor series and Maclaurin series. BC ONLY- LIM-8.F.1 The Maclaurin series for $\dfrac{1}{1-x}$ is a geometric series. BC ONLY
- LIM-8.F.2 The Maclaurin series for $\sin x$, $\cos x$, and $e^x$ provides the foundation for constructing the Maclaurin series for other functions. BC ONLY
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
把一个泰勒多项式扩展到无穷多项给出一个泰勒(或麦克劳林)级数。记住关键的麦克劳林级数:
$$e^x=\sum\frac{x^n}{n!},\quad \sin x=\sum\frac{(-1)^n x^{2n+1}}{(2n+1)!},\quad \cos x=\sum\frac{(-1)^n x^{2n}}{(2n)!},\quad \frac{1}{1-x}=\sum x^n.$$新级数来自处理这些——代入、求导、积分,或相乘。Worked example. 求 $e^{x^2}$ 的麦克劳林级数。在 $e^x=\sum\dfrac{x^n}{n!}$ 里用 $x^2$ 代 $x$:
$$e^{x^2}=\sum_{n=0}^{\infty}\frac{(x^2)^n}{n!}=1+x^2+\frac{x^4}{2!}+\frac{x^6}{3!}+\cdots,$$它对所有 $x$ 收敛。这个代入技巧远快于把 $e^{x^2}$ 求导六次。
每个额外的麦克劳林项在更宽的范围上贴合函数 探索The function a Taylor series approximates
y = asin(bx + c) + d
A Taylor series builds a function from its derivatives at a point; more terms hug the curve (here $\sin x$) over a wider range.
10.15
将函数表示为幂级数
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge LIM-8
Power series allow us to represent associated functions on an appropriate interval.LIM-8.G
Represent a given function as a power series. BC ONLY- LIM-8.G.1 Using a known series, a power series for a given function can be derived using operations such as term-by-term differentiation or term-by-term integration, and by various methods (e.g., algebraic processes, substitutions, or using properties of geometric series). BC ONLY
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
因为一个幂级数能被逐项求导和积分(在它的半径之内),你能从已知的构建新级数——例如,积分 $\dfrac{1}{1-x}$ 的几何级数以得到 $-\ln(1-x)=\sum_{n\ge 1}\dfrac{x^n}{n}$ 的级数,或代入 $-x^2$ 以得到 $\dfrac{1}{1+x^2}$ 的级数。把一个函数表示为一个幂级数让你能近似那些没有初等原函数的值和积分。
考试技能: BC 级数自由回答通常要求你从一个已知的推导一个新的麦克劳林级数、求它的收敛区间,并用交错级数或拉格朗日界来估计误差——课程的顶点技能。
10.15
考试技巧
- 用正确的工具判别一个级数的收敛:几何($|r|<1$,和 $\tfrac{a}{1-r}$)、$n$ 次项、比值、积分、比较,或交错级数判别法。
- 一个几何无穷和只在 $|r|<1$ 时收敛;否则它发散。
- 构建一个泰勒/麦克劳林级数来近似一个函数;更多项在中心附近给出更好的贴合。
- 知道 $e^x$、$\sin x$、$\cos x$ 和 $\tfrac{1}{1-x}$ 的标准麦克劳林级数。
- 用比值判别法求收敛半径/区间,然后分别检查端点。