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微分:定义与基本性质

AP 微积分 AB · 第 2 主题

训练
讲义 词汇表
2.1

定义某点的平均变化率与瞬时变化率

大纲
Enduring UnderstandingLearning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

CHA-2
Derivatives allow us to determine rates of change at an instant by applying limits to knowledge about rates of change over intervals.

CHA-2.A
Determine average rates of change using difference quotients.

  • CHA-2.A.1 The difference quotients $\dfrac{f(a+h)-f(a)}{h}$ and $\dfrac{f(x)-f(a)}{x-a}$ express the average rate of change of a function over an interval.

CHA-2.B
Represent the derivative of a function as the limit of a difference quotient.

  • CHA-2.B.1 The instantaneous rate of change of a function at $x=a$ can be expressed by $\lim\limits_{h\to 0}\dfrac{f(a+h)-f(a)}{h}$ or $\lim\limits_{x\to a}\dfrac{f(x)-f(a)}{x-a}$, provided the limit exists. These are equivalent forms of the definition of the derivative and are denoted $f'(a)$.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

导数的定义

第 1 单元构建了极限。第 2 单元用它来定义导数(derivative)——一个点处的精确变化率。

瞬时变化率是一个点处切线的斜率
瞬时变化率是一个点处切线的斜率

在一个区间上,平均变化率是一个差商(difference quotient)。两个等价的形式出现:

$$\frac{f(a+h)-f(a)}{h} \qquad\text{and}\qquad \frac{f(x)-f(a)}{x-a}.$$
第一个用从 $a$ 的一个大小为 $h$ 的步长;第二个用两个点 $x$$a$。两者都在区间上计算 $\dfrac{\text{change in output}}{\text{change in input}}$

$x=a$ 处的瞬时(instantaneous)变化率是随着区间收缩到零,差商所趋近的。这个极限就是 $a$ 处的导数,写作 $f'(a)$:

$$f'(a) = \lim_{h\to 0}\frac{f(a+h)-f(a)}{h} = \lim_{x\to a}\frac{f(x)-f(a)}{x-a},$$
只要极限存在。

探索

From average rate to instantaneous rate

y = ax³ + bx² + cx + d

Slide the point: the secant through two nearby points tips toward the tangent as they merge. The tangent's slope is the derivative — the instantaneous rate of change.

词汇表 训练
英文 中文 拼音
derivative 导数 dǎo shù
difference quotient 差商 chà shāng
instantaneous 瞬时 shùn shí
first principles 用定义求导 yòng dìng yì qiú dǎo
2.2

定义函数的导数与使用导数记号

大纲
Enduring UnderstandingLearning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

CHA-2
Derivatives allow us to determine rates of change at an instant by applying limits to knowledge about rates of change over intervals.

CHA-2.B
Represent the derivative of a function as the limit of a difference quotient.

  • CHA-2.B.2 The derivative of $f$ is the function whose value at $x$ is $\lim\limits_{h\to 0}\dfrac{f(x+h)-f(x)}{h}$, provided this limit exists.
  • CHA-2.B.3 For $y=f(x)$, notations for the derivative include $\dfrac{dy}{dx}$, $f'(x)$, and $y'$.
  • CHA-2.B.4 The derivative can be represented graphically, numerically, analytically, and verbally.

CHA-2.C
Determine the equation of a line tangent to a curve at a given point.

  • CHA-2.C.1 The derivative of a function at a point is the slope of the line tangent to a graph of the function at that point.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

让点 $a$ 变化,导数就变成一个新函数:

$$f'(x) = \lim_{h\to 0}\frac{f(x+h)-f(x)}{h}.$$
这是导数的定义(有时叫"用定义求导"(by first principles))。它在每个 $x$ 处的值是那里的瞬时变化率。

$y=f(x)$ 导数的常见记号(notations)是:

$$\frac{dy}{dx}, \qquad f'(x), \qquad y'.$$
导数能用图象、数值、解析式和文字表示——准备好在它们之间移动。

几何意义。 一个点处的导数是那里图象的切线(tangent line)的斜率(slope)。所以 $x=a$ 处的切线通过 $\big(a, f(a)\big)$,斜率为 $f'(a)$:

$$y - f(a) = f'(a)\,(x-a).$$
写这条线是一个常规的考试任务,所以把点斜式准备好。

割线斜率趋近切线斜率:导数是平均率的极限
随着 $Q$$P$ 滑动,每条割线的斜率(一个平均率)趋近切线的斜率——导数 $f'(a)$
词汇表 训练
英文 中文 拼音
notations 记号 jì hào
slope 斜率 xié lǜ
tangent line 切线 qiè xiàn
2.3

估计函数在某点的导数

大纲
Enduring UnderstandingLearning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

CHA-2
Derivatives allow us to determine rates of change at an instant by applying limits to knowledge about rates of change over intervals.

CHA-2.D
Estimate derivatives.

  • CHA-2.D.1 The derivative at a point can be estimated from information given in tables or graphs.
  • CHA-2.D.2 Technology can be used to calculate or estimate the value of a derivative of a function at a point.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

你不总是有一个公式。当一个函数由一张表格(table)或一个图象给出时,用$a$ 周围一个小区间上的一个差商估计导数 $f'(a)$。一张在 $a$ 两侧都有值的表给出最好的估计:

$$f'(a) \approx \frac{f(b)-f(c)}{b-c},\qquad \text{where } c < a < b \text{ are the closest table inputs}.$$
技术(一个计算器)也能估计一个点处的一个导数。

考试技能(几乎每年出现)。 像"用 $M$ 在区间 $5 \le t \le 10$ 上的平均变化率近似 $M'(7.5)$"这样的问题正是要求这个差商。展示设置:

$$M'(7.5) \approx \frac{M(10)-M(5)}{10-5}.$$
满分需要代入数字正确的单位(units)(每输入单位的输出单位),因为这些来自现实世界的模型。

词汇表 训练
英文 中文 拼音
table 表格 biǎo gé
units 单位 dān wèi
2.4

联系可微性与连续性:判断导数何时存在与不存在

大纲
Enduring UnderstandingLearning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

FUN-2
Recognizing that a function's derivative may also be a function allows us to develop knowledge about the related behaviors of both.

FUN-2.A
Explain the relationship between differentiability and continuity.

  • FUN-2.A.1 If a function is differentiable at a point, then it is continuous at that point. In particular, if a point is not in the domain of $f$, then it is not in the domain of $f'$.
  • FUN-2.A.2 A continuous function may fail to be differentiable at a point in its domain.
    • Illustrative examples for FUN-2.A.2:
      • The left hand and right hand limits of the difference quotient are not equal, as in $f(x)=|x|$ at $x=0$.
      • The tangent line is vertical and has no slope, as in $f(x)=\sqrt[3]{x}$ at $x=0$.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

可导性比连续性更强。关键的关系:

$f$ 在一个点可导**(differentiable),那么 $f$ 在那里连续(continuous)。**

所以可导性蕴含连续性。反过来是假的:一个连续函数可以不可导。这发生的两种方式:

  • 一个尖点(corner):左和右的差商极限不一致,如 $f(x)=|x|$$x=0$ 处。
  • 一条垂直切线(vertical tangent):斜率是无穷的(没有实数),如 $f(x)=\sqrt[3]{x}$$x=0$ 处。
一个连续函数不可导的两种方式:一个尖点和一条垂直切线
一个连续函数不可导的两种方式:一个尖点和一条垂直切线

而且,$f$ 定义域之外的一个点不能在 $f'$ 的定义域里。在考试上用逆否命题:$f$$a$ 处不连续,那么 $f$$a$ 处不可导。

词汇表 训练
英文 中文 拼音
differentiable 可导 kě dǎo
continuous 连续 lián xù
corner 尖点 jiān diǎn
vertical tangent 垂直切线 chuí zhí qiè xiàn
2.5

应用幂法则

大纲
Enduring UnderstandingLearning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

FUN-3
Recognizing opportunities to apply derivative rules can simplify differentiation.

FUN-3.A
Calculate derivatives of familiar functions.

  • FUN-3.A.1 Direct application of the definition of the derivative and specific rules can be used to calculate the derivative for functions of the form $f(x)=x^{r}$.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

从这里我们每次用规则代替极限定义。幂法则(power rule)处理 $x$ 的任何幂:

$$\frac{d}{dx}\,x^{r} = r\,x^{\,r-1}\qquad\text{for any real } r.$$
它对整数幂、负幂($\tfrac{1}{x}=x^{-1}$)和根式($\sqrt{x}=x^{1/2}$)都起作用——先重写为一个幂,然后应用规则。

探索

A power function and its steepening slope

y = ax³ + bx² + cx + d

The power rule $\frac{d}{dx}x^n = nx^{n-1}$ drops the exponent as a factor. For $x^3$ the slope grows quickly as $x$ moves from 0 — the curve steepens.

词汇表 训练
英文 中文 拼音
power rule 幂法则 mì fǎ zé
2.6

导数法则:常数、和、差与常数倍

大纲
Enduring UnderstandingLearning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

FUN-3
Recognizing opportunities to apply derivative rules can simplify differentiation.

FUN-3.A
Calculate derivatives of familiar functions.

  • FUN-3.A.2 Sums, differences, and constant multiples of functions can be differentiated using derivative rules.
  • FUN-3.A.3 The power rule combined with sum, difference, and constant multiple properties can be used to find the derivatives for polynomial functions.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

这些规则让你逐项求导:

  • 常数: $\dfrac{d}{dx}\,k = 0$(一个常数不变化)。
  • 常数倍(constant multiple): $\dfrac{d}{dx}\big[k\,f(x)\big] = k\,f'(x)$
  • 和 / 差: $\dfrac{d}{dx}\big[f(x)\pm g(x)\big] = f'(x)\pm g'(x)$

与幂法则结合,它们逐项求导任何多项式(polynomial)。例:

$$\frac{d}{dx}\big(4x^3 - 5x + 7\big) = 12x^2 - 5.$$

词汇表 训练
英文 中文 拼音
Constant multiple 常数倍 cháng shù bèi
polynomial 多项式 duō xiàng shì
2.7

cos x、sin x、e^x 与 ln x 的导数

大纲
Enduring UnderstandingLearning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

FUN-3
Recognizing opportunities to apply derivative rules can simplify differentiation.

FUN-3.A
Calculate derivatives of familiar functions.

  • FUN-3.A.4 Specific rules can be used to find the derivatives for sine, cosine, exponential, and logarithmic functions.

LIM-3
Reasoning with definitions, theorems, and properties can be used to determine a limit.

LIM-3.A
Interpret a limit as a definition of a derivative.

  • LIM-3.A.1 In some cases, recognizing an expression for the definition of the derivative of a function whose derivative is known offers a strategy for determining a limit.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

把这四个构建块导数记住:

$$\frac{d}{dx}\sin x = \cos x, \qquad \frac{d}{dx}\cos x = -\sin x,$$
$$\frac{d}{dx}e^{x} = e^{x}, \qquad \frac{d}{dx}\ln x = \frac{1}{x}\ \ (x>0).$$
注意余弦导数上的负号,以及 $e^{x}$ 是它自己的导数。

一个真的是一个导数的极限(LIM-3.A.1)。 有时一个极限秘密地是一个已知导数的定义。若你认出

$$\lim_{h\to 0}\frac{f(a+h)-f(a)}{h}$$
对于一个你知道导数的函数 $f$,只需求 $f'(a)$。例如,$\displaystyle \lim_{h\to 0}\frac{\sin\!\big(\tfrac{\pi}{2}+h\big)-1}{h} = \left.\frac{d}{dx}\sin x\right|_{x=\pi/2} = \cos\tfrac{\pi}{2} = 0$

探索

The shape of sin x (whose slope is cos x)

y = asin(bx + c) + d

The derivative of $\sin x$ is $\cos x$: the slope of the sine curve is largest where sine crosses zero and zero at its peaks. Watch the curve to feel where its slope is steep or flat.

2.8

乘积法则

大纲
Enduring UnderstandingLearning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

FUN-3
Recognizing opportunities to apply derivative rules can simplify differentiation.

FUN-3.B
Calculate derivatives of products and quotients of differentiable functions.

  • FUN-3.B.1 Derivatives of products of differentiable functions can be found using the product rule.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

乘积法则:不断长大的长方形

两个函数的一个乘积通过把导数相乘来求导。用乘积法则(product rule):

$$\frac{d}{dx}\big[u\,v\big] = u'v + uv'.$$
"第一个的导数乘第二个,加第一个乘第二个的导数。"例:
$$\frac{d}{dx}\big(x^2 e^{x}\big) = 2x\,e^{x} + x^2 e^{x}.$$
考试问题常常从给定的片段构建一个新函数,例如 $k'(x) = \big(f(x)\big)^2 g(x)$,并要求你在从一张表读值的同时组合规则。

词汇表 训练
英文 中文 拼音
product rule 乘积法则 chéng jī fǎ zé
2.9

商法则

大纲
Enduring UnderstandingLearning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

FUN-3
Recognizing opportunities to apply derivative rules can simplify differentiation.

FUN-3.B
Calculate derivatives of products and quotients of differentiable functions.

  • FUN-3.B.2 Derivatives of quotients of differentiable functions can be found using the quotient rule.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

对于一个商,用商法则(quotient rule):

$$\frac{d}{dx}\!\left[\frac{u}{v}\right] = \frac{u'v - uv'}{v^{2}}.$$
"底部乘顶部的导数,减顶部乘底部的导数,全都除以底部的平方。"因为负号顺序重要,所以仔细地写分子。例:
$$\frac{d}{dx}\!\left(\frac{x}{\cos x}\right) = \frac{1\cdot\cos x - x\cdot(-\sin x)}{\cos^2 x} = \frac{\cos x + x\sin x}{\cos^2 x}.$$

词汇表 训练
英文 中文 拼音
quotient rule 商法则 shāng fǎ zé
2.10

求正切、余切、正割与余割函数的导数

大纲
Enduring UnderstandingLearning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

FUN-3
Recognizing opportunities to apply derivative rules can simplify differentiation.

FUN-3.B
Calculate derivatives of products and quotients of differentiable functions.

  • FUN-3.B.3 Rearranging tangent, cotangent, secant, and cosecant functions using identities allows differentiation using derivative rules.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

商法则:对分式求导

其余的三角导数不被分别记忆——你用恒等式(identities)重写它们并应用商(或乘积)法则。例如,$\tan x = \dfrac{\sin x}{\cos x}$,所以商法则给出

$$\frac{d}{dx}\tan x = \frac{\cos x\cos x - \sin x(-\sin x)}{\cos^2 x} = \frac{1}{\cos^2 x} = \sec^2 x.$$
相同的方法(写 $\cot x=\tfrac{\cos x}{\sin x}$$\sec x=\tfrac{1}{\cos x}$$\csc x=\tfrac{1}{\sin x}$)给出 $-\csc^2 x$$\sec x\tan x$$-\csc x\cot x$

高阶导数。 再次对 $f'$ 求导给出二阶导数(second derivative)$f''(x)$(或 $\tfrac{d^2y}{dx^2}$)——变化率的变化率。一个像"求 $k''(3)$"的考试部分只意味着求导两次,然后代入。你也能通过把平均变化率方法应用于 $f'$ 值来从一张表估计一个二阶导数。

Worked example.乘积法则 $(uv)'=u'v+uv'$$f(x)=x^2\sin x$ 的导数:取 $u=x^2$($u'=2x$)和 $v=\sin x$($v'=\cos x$),得 $f'(x)=2x\sin x+x^2\cos x$。总是先读结构——一个乘积需要乘积法则,而不是对每个因子分别用幂法则。

词汇表 训练
英文 中文 拼音
identities 恒等式 héng děng shì
second derivative 二阶导数 èr jiē dǎo shù
2.10

考试技巧

  • 导数是切线的斜率——随着 $h\to0$ 割线斜率 $\tfrac{f(x+h)-f(x)}{h}$ 的极限。
  • 记住规则:幂、乘积、商,以及 $\sin$$\cos$$e^x$$\ln x$ 的导数。
  • 可导性蕴含连续性,但反之不然(一个尖点或尖角连续但不可导)。
  • 区分平均变化率(一个区间上的割线斜率)和瞬时率(一个点处的导数)。
  • 把一个切线方程给成 $y-f(a)=f'(a)(x-a)$

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