Supported SL core focus. First assessment 2025; current brief acquired; full Chemistry guide not acquired. Remaining guide, assessment and practical requirements retain their recorded holds.
Prerequisites: atomic number and the structure of the atom from Structure 1.2, arithmetic with powers of ten, and the wave relation c = fλ. Each lesson develops its own method before independent transfer.
These are original or explicitly fictional teaching examples, not actual measurements or completed assessed learner investigations.
3.2
Electron configurations 电子排布
English
What would explain this observation?
A hydrogen discharge tube glows, and a prism splits the light into a few exact coloured lines — not a continuous rainbow. Why only those colours?
Start with a prediction. State the quantities or features you would compare, then decide what evidence could distinguish two explanations.
Build the model
An electron in an atom can only occupy fixed energy levels 能级. When it falls from a higher level to a lower one, it emits one photon whose energy equals the gap: E₂ − E₁ = hf. A line emission spectrum 发射光谱 is the set of these exact photon energies, so each element shows its own pattern of lines.
Electrons fill the levels in a fixed order from lowest energy: 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p. An orbital 轨道 holds at most two electrons with opposite spins. The electron configuration lists the occupied sublevels, for example iron: 1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p⁶ 4s² 3d⁶, written compactly as [Ar] 4s² 3d⁶.
energy level: A fixed energy an electron may have in an atom; orbital: A region holding at most two electrons with opposite spins; emission spectrum: The exact set of light frequencies an element emits.
Choose evidence that can test it
The emission lines of hydrogen fall at exact frequencies predicted by the level gaps. If electrons could have any energy, the spectrum would be continuous — the observed separate lines are the evidence for fixed levels.
The first ionisation energies of successive elements rise in steps and fall at the start of each new shell, matching the order in which sublevels fill. Compare a measured spectrum or ionisation pattern with the configuration model before accepting an explanation.
Work from known quantities
State the known values and their units. Choose the relation because its assumptions fit this case, then rearrange before substitution.
Known: the red Balmer line of hydrogen has wavelength λ = 656 nm = 656 × 10⁻⁹ m; c = 3.00 × 10⁸ m/s and h = 6.63 × 10⁻³⁴ J s. The photon energy equals the level gap: E = hf and f = c/λ, so E = hc/λ. Substitution: E = (6.63 × 10⁻³⁴ × 3.00 × 10⁸)/(656 × 10⁻⁹) = 3.03 × 10⁻¹⁹ J. This is the energy gap between the n = 3 and n = 2 levels.
Example:
The ultraviolet line of hydrogen has λ = 122 nm. Find the photon energy using the same sequence: known quantities → model → relation → substitution → unit and interpretation. (Answer: E = 6.63 × 10⁻³⁴ × 3.00 × 10⁸ / (122 × 10⁻⁹) = 1.63 × 10⁻¹⁸ J — about five times the red line's energy, because it spans the larger gap down to n = 1.)
Check the conclusion and its limits
The filling order 4s before 3d is an empirical energy order for NEUTRAL atoms; when atoms lose electrons to form ions, the 4s electrons leave first (iron forms Fe²⁺ as [Ar] 3d⁶, not [Ar] 4s² 3d⁴). The simple order also has noted exceptions such as chromium [Ar] 4s¹ 3d⁵.
Return to the original observation. Explain what the result supports, which conditions it assumes, and one way to test a competing explanation.
Warn:
Electrons in an atom can occupy any energy between the shells. This claim is false: the separate lines of an emission spectrum appear only because electrons fall between fixed energy levels; a continuum of allowed energies would give a continuous spectrum, which is not observed.
Key:
Electron configurations: electrons occupy fixed energy levels, and the photon energy of each emission line equals the gap between two levels, E = hc/λ. Sublevels fill in the order 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4p, with at most two opposite-spin electrons per orbital.
Supported SL core focus. First assessment 2025; current brief acquired; full Chemistry guide not acquired. Remaining guide, assessment and practical requirements retain their recorded holds.
Prerequisites: electron configurations from Structure 1.3 and the nuclear-atom model from Structure 1.2. Each lesson develops its own method before independent transfer.
These are original or explicitly fictional teaching examples, not actual measurements or completed assessed learner investigations.
10.2
The periodic table: classification of elements 元素周期表
English
What would explain this observation?
Lithium, sodium and potassium all fizz with water — and each more violently than the last. Why do these elements behave like a family?
Start with a prediction. State the quantities or features you would compare, then decide what evidence could distinguish two explanations.
Build the model
Elements are ordered by atomic number. A vertical group 族 contains atoms with the same number of outer electrons, so they react alike. A horizontal period 周期 fills one more electron shell across its length. The block 区 (s, p, d or f) names which sublevel is being filled.
Across a period the first ionisation energy 第一电离能 rises overall, because the nuclear charge grows at almost unchanged shielding; it dips where a new sublevel starts (B after Be) and where a p orbital first holds a paired electron (O after N). Down a group it falls as the outer electron is farther away and more shielded.
group: A column of the periodic table whose atoms share an outer-electron count; period: A row of the table filling one electron shell; block: The region of the table named by the sublevel being filled; first ionisation energy: The energy needed to remove one electron from each atom in one mole of gaseous atoms.
Choose evidence that can test it
Compare the reactions of two or more members of one group under the same conditions, such as lithium and potassium with cold water: same products, different vigour — evidence that shared outer configuration drives the chemistry.
Plot measured first ionisation energies across a period. The model predicts the rise and the two dips at the sublevel boundary and the first paired p electron; check whether the data show exactly those dips.
Work from known quantities
State the known values and their units. Choose the relation because its assumptions fit this case, then rearrange before substitution.
Known: the first ionisation energies of magnesium and aluminium are 738 and 578 kJ/mol. The trend rises across a period, yet Al lies below Mg. The electron removed from aluminium is in 3p, while magnesium loses from 3s: the 3p electron is higher in energy and better shielded, so less energy is needed — a difference of 738 − 578 = 160 kJ/mol.
Example:
The first ionisation energies of sodium and magnesium are 496 and 738 kJ/mol. Find the difference and explain its direction using the same sequence: known quantities → model → relation → substitution → unit and interpretation. (Answer: 738 − 496 = 242 kJ/mol higher for magnesium; the 3s electron in Mg feels one more proton at nearly the same shielding, so it is held more tightly.)
Check the conclusion and its limits
The block model explains the MAIN trends; transition-metal chemistry has additional d-orbital detail beyond this classification lesson, and ionisation values are measured for gaseous atoms, not for reacting solids.
Return to the original observation. Explain what the result supports, which conditions it assumes, and one way to test a competing explanation.
Warn:
Elements in the same group react alike because they have the same number of electrons. This claim is false: they share the number of OUTER electrons — sodium has 11 electrons in total and potassium 19, yet both react as Group 1 metals because each has one outer electron.
Key:
The periodic table: classification of elements: group = shared outer-electron count and similar reactions; period = a filling shell; block = the sublevel being filled. Ionisation energy rises across a period with dips at the sublevel boundary and the first paired p electron, and falls down a group.
Supported SL core focus. First assessment 2025; current brief acquired; full Chemistry guide not acquired. Remaining guide, assessment and practical requirements retain their recorded holds.
Prerequisites: enthalpy change and calorimetry from Reactivity 1.1, balancing equations, and arithmetic with signed quantities. Each lesson develops its own method before independent transfer.
These are original or explicitly fictional teaching examples, not actual measurements or completed assessed learner investigations.
13.2
Energy cycles in reactions 能量循环
English
What would explain this observation?
Some enthalpy changes cannot be measured directly: carbon and hydrogen will not simply combine into methane in a calorimeter. How can we still know the enthalpy change of that reaction?
Start with a prediction. State the quantities or features you would compare, then decide what evidence could distinguish two explanations.
Build the model
Hess's law 盖斯定律: the total enthalpy change of a reaction is the same whatever route is taken, because energy is conserved. An energy cycle links the direct route to an indirect route through shared substances, so the unknown change is found from measurable ones.
With standard enthalpy of formation 标准生成焓 data the rule is ΔH = ΣΔHf(products) − ΣΔHf(reactants). With standard enthalpy of combustion 标准燃烧焓 data the cycle runs through the combustion products: ΔH = ΣΔHc(reactants) − ΣΔHc(products). Elements in their standard states have ΔHf = 0.
energy cycle: A diagram linking two routes between the same start and end points; standard enthalpy of formation: The enthalpy change when one mole of a compound forms from its elements under standard conditions; standard enthalpy of combustion: The enthalpy change when one mole burns completely under standard conditions.
Choose evidence that can test it
Measure the enthalpies of combustion of carbon, hydrogen and methane by calorimetry; each is directly measurable. The cycle then predicts the formation enthalpy of methane, and the same method applied to a reaction that CAN be measured directly (such as neutralisation) confirms that route and direct measurement agree within experimental uncertainty.
State the states of every substance and the standard conditions; an enthalpy value without states is incomplete.
Work from known quantities
State the known values and their units. Choose the relation because its assumptions fit this case, then rearrange before substitution.
Known: ΔHc(C) = −394 kJ/mol, ΔHc(H₂) = −286 kJ/mol, ΔHc(CH₄) = −890 kJ/mol. The target is ΔHf for C (s) + 2H₂ (g) → CH₄ (g). By Hess's law along the combustion route: ΔHf = [ΔHc(C) + 2ΔHc(H₂)] − ΔHc(CH₄). Substitution: ΔHf = [−394 + 2 × (−286)] − (−890) = −966 + 890 = −76 kJ/mol. The negative sign means the formation of methane from its elements is exothermic.
Example:
Ethanol burns: C₂H₅OH (l) + 3O₂ (g) → 2CO₂ (g) + 3H₂O (l). Using ΔHf(CO₂) = −394, ΔHf(H₂O) = −286 and ΔHf(C₂H₅OH) = −278 kJ/mol, find ΔHc of ethanol with the same sequence: known quantities → model → relation → substitution → unit and interpretation. (Answer: ΔH = [2 × (−394) + 3 × (−286)] − [−278 + 0] = −1646 + 278 = −1368 kJ/mol; oxygen is an element in its standard state, so its ΔHf is 0.)
Check the conclusion and its limits
Hess's law assumes the routes share the same start and end states and that the tabulated values apply at the stated conditions. Real calorimetry loses heat, so measured values carry uncertainty; the law itself is exact.
Return to the original observation. Explain what the result supports, which conditions it assumes, and one way to test a competing explanation.
Warn:
The enthalpy change of a reaction depends on the route by which the reaction happens. This claim is false: Hess's law follows from the conservation of energy — the total change depends only on the start and end states, so an unmeasurable change can be computed from a measurable indirect route.
Key:
Energy cycles in reactions: ΔH is route-independent. Use ΔH = ΣΔHf(products) − ΣΔHf(reactants) from formation data, or ΔH = ΣΔHc(reactants) − ΣΔHc(products) from combustion data, keeping signs and states explicit.
คำนวณปริมาณ Known ก่อน ใช้สัดส่วนสโตกิโอเมตรี แล้วหารด้วยปริมาตรสารละลายที่ไม่ทราบเป็นลูกบาศก์เดซิมิטר ใช้ titre ที่สอดคล้องกันตามที่วิธีการของโรงเรียนกำหนดและรายงานค่าที่ยอมรับ
Supported SL core focus. First assessment 2025; current brief acquired; full Chemistry guide not acquired. Remaining guide, assessment and practical requirements retain their recorded holds.
Prerequisites: chemical equations and reversible reactions from Structure and Reactivity 2, logarithms, and the mole. Each lesson develops its own method before independent transfer.
These are original or explicitly fictional teaching examples, not actual measurements or completed assessed learner investigations.
18.2
Proton transfer reactions 质子转移
English
What would explain this observation?
Two bottles both labelled "0.1 mol/dm³ acid" give very different pH readings: 1.0 and 2.9. Same concentration, different acidity — how?
Start with a prediction. State the quantities or features you would compare, then decide what evidence could distinguish two explanations.
Build the model
In the Brønsted–Lowry model, an acid is a proton donor 质子给体 and a base is a proton acceptor. Every such reaction links a conjugate acid–base pair 共轭酸碱对 differing by exactly one H⁺: NH₃ + H₂O ⇌ NH₄⁺ + OH⁻ pairs NH₃ with NH₄⁺ and H₂O with OH⁻.
A strong acid 强酸 dissociates almost completely in water; a weak acid 弱酸 only partially, so the same concentration gives a different [H⁺]. Water itself ionises slightly: Kw = [H⁺][OH⁻] = 1.0 × 10⁻¹⁴ mol²/dm⁶ at 298 K, and pH = −log[H⁺].
proton donor: A species that gives an H⁺ to another species; conjugate acid–base pair: Two species differing by exactly one proton; strong acid: An acid that dissociates almost completely in water; weak acid: An acid that only partially dissociates in water.
Choose evidence that can test it
Compare equal-concentration solutions: a strong acid conducts better and shows a lower pH than a weak acid of the same concentration, because more of its molecules have dissociated. Measure pH with a calibrated meter, not by estimating from the label.
Adding the conjugate base of a weak acid shifts its equilibrium toward the undissociated form — evidence that the dissociation is a genuine equilibrium, not a one-way reaction.
Work from known quantities
State the known values and their units. Choose the relation because its assumptions fit this case, then rearrange before substitution.
Known: HCl is a strong acid at 0.05 mol/dm³, so [H⁺] = 0.05 mol/dm³. pH = −log[H⁺]. Substitution: pH = −log(0.05) = 1.30. For 0.01 mol/dm³ NaOH, a strong base, [OH⁻] = 0.01; using Kw, [H⁺] = Kw/[OH⁻] = 1.0 × 10⁻¹⁴ / 0.01 = 1.0 × 10⁻¹², so pH = 12.0.
Example:
A strong-acid solution has [H⁺] = 2.5 × 10⁻⁴ mol/dm³. Find its pH using the same sequence: known quantities → model → relation → substitution → unit and interpretation. (Answer: pH = −log(2.5 × 10⁻⁴) = 3.60. pH is dimensionless; state the input concentration with its unit.)
Check the conclusion and its limits
pH = −log[H⁺] in this form assumes dilute solutions where concentration approximates activity; at high concentration the approximation weakens. Kw = 1.0 × 10⁻¹⁴ holds at 298 K and changes with temperature.
Return to the original observation. Explain what the result supports, which conditions it assumes, and one way to test a competing explanation.
Warn:
A strong acid is the same thing as a concentrated acid. This claim is false: strength is the degree of dissociation and concentration is the amount per volume; a concentrated weak acid and a dilute strong acid both exist.
Key:
Proton transfer reactions: acids donate protons and bases accept them; every transfer links a conjugate pair differing by one H⁺. Strength (degree of dissociation) is not concentration, and pH = −log[H⁺] with Kw = [H⁺][OH⁻].
Supported SL core focus. First assessment 2025; current brief acquired; full Chemistry guide not acquired. Remaining guide, assessment and practical requirements retain their recorded holds.
Prerequisites: covalent bonding from Structure 2.2 and alkane structure from Structure 3.2. Each lesson develops its own method before independent transfer.
These are original or explicitly fictional teaching examples, not actual measurements or completed assessed learner investigations.
20.2
Electron sharing reactions 自由基取代
English
What would explain this observation?
Methane and chlorine are mixed in the dark and nothing happens; the same mixture in sunlight reacts at once, and the product is never pure chloromethane — it always carries further-substituted molecules. Why?
Start with a prediction. State the quantities or features you would compare, then decide what evidence could distinguish two explanations.
Build the model
A covalent bond can break by homolytic fission 均裂: the shared pair splits so each atom keeps one electron, forming two free radicals 自由基 — atoms or groups with an unpaired electron, written with a dot, such as Cl•. A single-barbed (fishhook) arrow shows ONE electron moving.
Radical substitution runs as a chain: initiation 引发 (UV light splits Cl₂ into two Cl•), propagation 链增长 (a radical makes a product and another radical: CH₄ + Cl• → •CH₃ + HCl, then •CH₃ + Cl₂ → CH₃Cl + Cl•), and termination 终止 (two radicals join, ending the chain).
homolytic fission: Bond breaking that gives each atom one electron of the shared pair; free radical: A species with an unpaired electron, highly reactive; initiation: The step that first produces radicals; propagation: A chain step consuming one radical and producing another; termination: A step removing radicals by joining two of them.
Choose evidence that can test it
The reaction needs UV light or heat to start but then continues on its own — evidence for a chain in which each step regenerates a radical. Trace amounts of ethane among the products show that two •CH₃ radicals joined in a termination step.
A mixture of CH₃Cl, CH₂Cl₂, CHCl₃ and CCl₄ forms because the product still has C–H bonds open to further propagation; single-substitution purity is evidence against a controlled, non-chain route.
Work from known quantities
State the known values and their units. Choose the relation because its assumptions fit this case, then rearrange before substitution.
Known: the bond enthalpies are Cl–Cl 242 kJ/mol and C–H 413 kJ/mol. Bond breaking is endothermic, so the weaker bond breaks first. Comparing the two: 413 − 242 = 171 kJ/mol less energy breaks Cl–Cl, which is why UV initiates the chain by splitting chlorine rather than methane.
Example:
The H–Cl bond enthalpy is 431 kJ/mol and the C–Cl bond in CH₃Cl is 339 kJ/mol. For the propagation step CH₄ + Cl• → •CH₃ + HCl, estimate the energy change using the same sequence: known quantities → model → relation → substitution → unit and interpretation. (Answer: break C–H (+413), form H–Cl (−431): ΔH ≈ 413 − 431 = −18 kJ/mol — slightly exothermic, so the step proceeds readily once radicals exist.)
Check the conclusion and its limits
Bond enthalpies are averages measured over many compounds, so an estimate from them is approximate, not exact. The chain model for this reaction explains the UV start and the product mixture; it does not describe polar reagents, where heterolytic (electron-PAIR) mechanisms apply instead — the next lesson's model.
Return to the original observation. Explain what the result supports, which conditions it assumes, and one way to test a competing explanation.
Warn:
In a radical substitution, every chlorine atom ends up substituted onto a methane molecule. This claim is false: termination joins radicals with each other (Cl• + Cl• → Cl₂, or two •CH₃ → C₂H₆), and propagation continues substituting the products, so the outcome is always a mixture.
Key:
Electron sharing reactions: homolytic fission splits a shared pair one electron each way, giving radicals; fishhook arrows track single electrons. Radical substitution chains through initiation, propagation and termination, which explains the UV trigger and the mixture of products.