1.1 Contextualizing Period 1

Learning Objective Unit 1.A: Explain the context for European encounters in the Americas from 1491 to 1607.

• KC-1.1 As native populations migrated and settled across the vast expanse of North America over time, they developed distinct and increasingly complex societies by adapting to and transforming their diverse environments.
  • KC-1.1.I Different native societies adapted to and transformed their environments through innovations in agriculture, resource use, and social structure.
• KC-1.2 Contact among Europeans, Native Americans, and Africans resulted in the Columbian Exchange and significant social, cultural, and political changes on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean.
  • KC-1.2.I European expansion into the Western Hemisphere generated intense social, religious, political, and economic competition and changes within European societies.
  • KC-1.2.II The Columbian Exchange and development of the Spanish Empire in the Western Hemisphere resulted in extensive demographic, economic, and social changes.
  • KC-1.2.III In their interactions, Europeans and Native Americans asserted divergent worldviews regarding issues such as religion, gender roles, family, land use, and power.

1.2 Native American Societies Before European Contact

Thematic Focus (GEO): Geography and the Environment — Geographic and environmental factors, including competition over and debates about natural resources, shape the development of America and foster regional diversity. The development of America impacts the environment and reshapes geography, which leads to debates about environmental and geographic issues.

Learning Objective Unit 1.B: Explain how and why various native populations in the period before European contact interacted with the natural environment in North America.

• KC-1.1.I.A The spread of maize cultivation from present-day Mexico northward into the present-day American Southwest and beyond supported economic development, settlement, advanced irrigation, and social diversification among societies.
• KC-1.1.I.B Societies responded to the aridity of the Great Basin and the grasslands of the western Great Plains by developing largely mobile lifestyles.
• KC-1.1.I.C In the Northeast, the Mississippi River Valley, and along the Atlantic seaboard, some societies developed mixed agricultural and hunter-gatherer economies that favored the development of permanent villages.
• KC-1.1.I.D Societies in the Northwest and present-day California supported themselves by hunting and gathering, and in some areas developed settled communities supported by the vast resources of the ocean.

1.3 European Exploration in the Americas

Thematic Focus (WOR): America in the World — Diplomatic, economic, cultural, and military interactions between empires, nations, and peoples shape the development of America and America’s increasingly important role in the world.

Learning Objective Unit 1.C: Explain the causes of exploration and conquest of the New World by various European nations.

• KC-1.2.I.A European nations’ efforts to explore and conquer the New World stemmed from a search for new sources of wealth, economic and military competition, and a desire to spread Christianity.

1.4 Columbian Exchange, Spanish Exploration, and Conquest

Thematic Focus (GEO): Geography and the Environment — Geographic and environmental factors, including competition over and debates about natural resources, shape the development of America and foster regional diversity. The development of America impacts the environment and reshapes geography, which leads to debates about environmental and geographic issues.

Learning Objective Unit 1.D: Explain causes of the Columbian Exchange and its effect on Europe and the Americas during the period after 1492.

• KC-1.2.I.B The Columbian Exchange brought new crops to Europe from the Americas, stimulating European population growth, and new sources of mineral wealth, which facilitated the European shift from feudalism to capitalism.
• KC-1.2.I.C Improvements in maritime technology and more organized methods for conducting international trade, such as joint-stock companies, helped drive changes to economies in Europe and the Americas.
• KC-1.2.II.A Spanish exploration and conquest of the Americas were accompanied and furthered by widespread deadly epidemics that devastated native populations and by the introduction of crops and animals not found in the Americas.

1.5 Labor, Slavery, and Caste in the Spanish Colonial System

Thematic Focus (SOC): Social Structures — Social categories, roles, and practices are created, maintained, challenged, and transformed throughout American history, shaping government policy, economic systems, culture, and the lives of citizens.

Learning Objective Unit 1.E: Explain how the growth of the Spanish Empire in North America shaped the development of social and economic structures over time.

• KC-1.2.II.B In the encomienda system, Spanish colonial economies marshaled Native American labor to support plantation-based agriculture and extract precious metals and other resources.
• KC-1.2.II.C European traders partnered with some West African groups who practiced slavery to forcibly extract enslaved laborers for the Americas. The Spanish imported enslaved Africans to labor in plantation agriculture and mining.
• KC-1.2.II.D The Spanish developed a caste system that incorporated, and carefully defined the status of, the diverse population of Europeans, Africans, and Native Americans in their empire.

1.6 Cultural Interactions Between Europeans, Native Americans, and Africans

Thematic Focus (WOR): America in the World — Diplomatic, economic, cultural, and military interactions between empires, nations, and peoples shape the development of America and America’s increasingly important role in the world.

Learning Objective Unit 1.F: Explain how and why European and Native American perspectives of others developed and changed in the period.

• KC-1.2.III In their interactions, Europeans and Native Americans asserted divergent worldviews regarding issues such as religion, gender roles, family, land use, and power.
• KC-1.2.III.A Mutual misunderstandings between Europeans and Native Americans often defined the early years of interaction and trade as each group sought to make sense of the other. Over time, Europeans and Native Americans adopted some useful aspects of each other’s culture.
• KC-1.2.III.B As European encroachments on Native Americans’ lands and demands on their labor increased, native peoples sought to defend and maintain their political sovereignty, economic prosperity, religious beliefs, and concepts of gender relations through diplomatic negotiations and military resistance.
• KC-1.2.III.C Extended contact with Native Americans and Africans fostered a debate among European religious and political leaders about how non-Europeans should be treated, as well as evolving religious, cultural, and racial justifications for the subjugation of Africans and Native Americans.

1.7 Causation in Period 1

Learning Objective Unit 1.G: Explain the effects of the development of transatlantic voyages from 1491 to 1607.

• KC-1.1 As native populations migrated and settled across the vast expanse of North America over time, they developed distinct and increasingly complex societies by adapting to and transforming their diverse environments.
  • KC-1.1.I Different native societies adapted to and transformed their environments through innovations in agriculture, resource use, and social structure.
• KC-1.2 Contact among Europeans, Native Americans, and Africans resulted in the Columbian Exchange and significant social, cultural, and political changes on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean.
  • KC-1.2.I European expansion into the Western Hemisphere generated intense social, religious, political, and economic competition and changes within European societies.
  • KC-1.2.II The Columbian Exchange and development of the Spanish Empire in the Western Hemisphere resulted in extensive demographic, economic, and social changes.
  • KC-1.2.III In their interactions, Europeans and Native Americans asserted divergent worldviews regarding issues such as religion, gender roles, family, land use, and power.

2.1 Contextualizing Period 2

Learning Objective Unit 2.A: Explain the context for the colonization of North America from 1607 to 1754.

• KC-2.1 Europeans developed a variety of colonization and migration patterns, influenced by different imperial goals, cultures, and the varied North American environments where they settled. They competed with each other and American Indians for resources.
  • KC-2.1.I Spanish, French, Dutch, and British colonizers had different economic and imperial goals involving land and labor that shaped the social and political development of their colonies as well as their relationships with native populations.
  • KC-2.1.II In the 17th century, early British colonies developed along the Atlantic coast, with regional differences that reflected various environmental, economic, cultural, and demographic factors.
  • KC-2.1.III Competition over resources between European rivals and American Indians encouraged industry and trade and led to conflict in the Americas.
• KC-2.2 The British colonies participated in political, social, cultural, and economic exchanges with Great Britain that encouraged both stronger bonds with Britain and resistance to Britain’s control.
  • KC-2.2.I Transatlantic commercial, religious, philosophical, and political exchanges led residents of the British colonies to evolve in their political and cultural attitudes as they became increasingly tied to Britain and one another.
  • KC-2.2.II Like other European empires in the Americas that participated in the Atlantic slave trade, the English colonies developed a system of slavery that reflected the specific economic, demographic, and geographic characteristics of those colonies.

2.2 European Colonization

Thematic Focus (MIG): Migration and Settlement — Push and pull factors shape immigration to and migration within America, and the demographic change as a result of these moves shapes the migrants, society, and the environment.

Learning Objective Unit 2.B: Explain how and why various European colonies developed and expanded from 1607 to 1754.

• KC-2.1.I.A Spanish efforts to extract wealth from the land led them to develop institutions based on subjugating native populations, converting them to Christianity, and incorporating them, along with enslaved and free Africans, into Spanish colonial society.
• KC-2.1.I.B French and Dutch colonial efforts involved relatively few Europeans and relied on trade alliances and intermarriage with American Indians to build economic and diplomatic relationships and acquire furs and other products for export to Europe.
• KC-2.1.I.C English colonization efforts attracted a comparatively large number of male and female British migrants, as well as other European migrants, all of whom sought social mobility, economic prosperity, religious freedom, and improved living conditions. These colonists focused on agriculture and settled on land taken from Native Americans, from whom they lived separately.

2.3 The Regions of British Colonies

Thematic Focus (GEO): Geography and the Environment — Geographic and environmental factors, including competition over and debates about natural resources, shape the development of America and foster regional diversity. The development of America impacts the environment and reshapes geography, which leads to debates about environmental and geographic issues.

Learning Objective Unit 2.C: Explain how and why environmental and other factors shaped the development and expansion of various British colonies that developed and expanded from 1607 to 1754.

• KC-2.1.II.A The Chesapeake and North Carolina colonies grew prosperous exporting tobacco—a labor-intensive product initially cultivated by white, mostly male indentured servants and later by enslaved Africans.
• KC-2.1.II.B The New England colonies, initially settled by Puritans, developed around small towns with family farms and achieved a thriving mixed economy of agriculture and commerce.
• KC-2.1.II.C The middle colonies supported a flourishing export economy based on cereal crops and attracted a broad range of European migrants, leading to societies with greater cultural, ethnic, and religious diversity and tolerance.
• KC-2.1.II.D The colonies of the southern Atlantic coast and the British West Indies used long growing seasons to develop plantation economies based on exporting cash crops. They depended on the labor of enslaved Africans, who often constituted the majority of the population in these areas and developed their own forms of cultural and religious autonomy.
• KC-2.1.II.E Distance and Britain’s initially lax attention led to the colonies creating self-governing institutions that were unusually democratic for the era. The New England colonies based power in participatory town meetings, which in turn elected members to their colonial legislatures; in the southern colonies, elite planters exercised local authority and also dominated the elected assemblies.

2.4 Transatlantic Trade

Thematic Focus (WXT): Work, Exchange, and Technology — The interplay between markets, private enterprise, labor, technology, and government policy shape the American economy. In turn, economic activity shapes society and government policy and drives technological innovation.

Learning Objective Unit 2.D: Explain causes and effects of transatlantic trade over time.

• KC-2.1.III.A An Atlantic economy developed in which goods, as well as enslaved Africans and American Indians, were exchanged between Europe, Africa, and the Americas through extensive trade networks. European colonial economies focused on acquiring, producing, and exporting commodities that were valued in Europe and gaining new sources of labor.
• KC-2.1.III.B Continuing trade with Europeans increased the flow of goods in and out of American Indian communities, stimulating cultural and economic changes and spreading epidemic diseases that caused radical demographic shifts.
• KC-2.2.I.C The British government increasingly attempted to incorporate its North American colonies into a coherent, hierarchical, and imperial structure in order to pursue mercantilist economic aims, but conflicts with colonists and American Indians led to erratic enforcement of imperial policies.

2.5 Interactions Between American Indians and Europeans

Thematic Focus (WOR): America in the World — Diplomatic, economic, cultural, and military interactions between empires, nations, and peoples shape the development of America and America’s increasingly important role in the world.

Learning Objective Unit 2.E: Explain how and why interactions between various European nations and American Indians changed over time.

• KC-2.1.III.C Interactions between European rivals and American Indian populations fostered both accommodation and conflict. French, Dutch, British, and Spanish colonies allied with and armed American Indian groups, who frequently sought alliances with Europeans against other American Indian groups.
• KC-2.1.III.E British conflicts with American Indians over land, resources, and political boundaries led to military confrontations, such as Metacom’s War (King Philip’s War) in New England.
• KC-2.1.III.F American Indian resistance to Spanish colonizing efforts in North America, particularly after the Pueblo Revolt, led to Spanish accommodation of some aspects of American Indian culture in the Southwest.

2.6 Slavery in the British Colonies

Thematic Focus (WXT): Work, Exchange, and Technology — The interplay between markets, private enterprise, labor, technology, and government policy shape the American economy. In turn, economic activity shapes society and government policy and drives technological innovation.

Thematic Focus (SOC): Social Structures — Social categories, roles, and practices are created, maintained, challenged, and transformed throughout American history, shaping government policy, economic systems, culture, and the lives of citizens.

Learning Objective Unit 2.F: Explain the causes and effects of slavery in the various British colonial regions.

• KC-2.2.II.A All the British colonies participated to varying degrees in the Atlantic slave trade due to the abundance of land and a growing European demand for colonial goods, as well as a shortage of indentured servants. Small New England farms used relatively few enslaved laborers, all port cities held significant minorities of enslaved people, and the emerging plantation systems of the Chesapeake and the southern Atlantic coast had large numbers of enslaved workers, while the great majority of enslaved Africans were sent to the West Indies.
• KC-2.2.II.B As chattel slavery became the dominant labor system in many southern colonies, new laws created a strict racial system that prohibited interracial relationships and defined the descendants of African American mothers as black and enslaved in perpetuity.

Learning Objective Unit 2.G: Explain how enslaved people responded to slavery.

• KC-2.2.II.C Africans developed both overt and covert means to resist the dehumanizing nature of slavery and maintain their family and gender systems, culture, and religion.

2.8 Comparison in Period 2

Learning Objective Unit 2.J: Compare the effects of the development of colonial society in the various regions of North America.

• KC-2.1 Europeans developed a variety of colonization and migration patterns, influenced by different imperial goals, cultures, and the varied North American environments where they settled. They competed with each other and American Indians for resources.
  • KC-2.1.I Spanish, French, Dutch, and British colonizers had different economic and imperial goals involving land and labor that shaped the social and political development of their colonies as well as their relationships with native populations.
  • KC-2.1.II In the 17th century, early British colonies developed along the Atlantic coast, with regional differences that reflected various environmental, economic, cultural, and demographic factors.
  • KC-2.1.III Competition over resources between European rivals and American Indians encouraged industry and trade and led to conflict in the Americas.
• KC-2.2 The British colonies participated in political, social, cultural, and economic exchanges with Great Britain that encouraged both stronger bonds with Britain and resistance to Britain’s control.
  • KC-2.2.I Transatlantic commercial, religious, philosophical, and political exchanges led residents of the British colonies to evolve in their political and cultural attitudes as they became increasingly tied to Britain and one another.
  • KC-2.2.II Like other European empires in the Americas that participated in the Atlantic slave trade, the English colonies developed a system of slavery that reflected the specific economic, demographic, and geographic characteristics of those colonies.

3.1 Contextualizing Period 3

Learning Objective Unit 3.A: Explain the context in which America gained independence and developed a sense of national identity.

• KC-3.1 British attempts to assert tighter control over its North American colonies and the colonial resolve to pursue self-government led to a colonial independence movement and the Revolutionary War.
  • KC-3.1.I The competition among the British, French, and American Indians for economic and political advantage in North America culminated in the Seven Years’ War (the French and Indian War), in which Britain defeated France and allied American Indians.
  • KC-3.1.II The desire of many colonists to assert ideals of self-government in the face of renewed British imperial efforts led to a colonial independence movement and war with Britain.
• KC-3.2 The American Revolution’s democratic and republican ideals inspired new experiments with different forms of government.
  • KC-3.2.I The ideals that inspired the revolutionary cause reflected new beliefs about politics, religion, and society that had been developing over the course of the 18th century.
  • KC-3.2.II After declaring independence, American political leaders created new constitutions and declarations of rights that articulated the role of the state and federal governments while protecting individual liberties and limiting both centralized power and excessive popular influence.
  • KC-3.2.III.i New forms of national culture and political institutions developed in the United States alongside continued regional variations and differences over economic, political, social, and foreign policy issues.
• KC-3.3 Migration within North America and competition over resources, boundaries, and trade intensified conflicts among peoples and nations.
  • KC-3.3.I In the decades after American independence, interactions among different groups resulted in competition for resources, shifting alliances, and cultural blending.
  • KC-3.3.II The continued presence of European powers in North America challenged the United States to find ways to safeguard its borders, maintain neutral trading rights, and promote its economic interests.

3.2 The Seven Years’ War (The French and Indian War)

3.3 Taxation Without Representation

3.4 Philosophical Foundations of the American Revolution

3.5 The American Revolution

3.6 The Influence of Revolutionary Ideals

3.7 The Articles of Confederation

3.8 The Constitutional Convention and Debates over Ratification

3.9 The Constitution

3.10 Shaping a New Republic

3.11 Developing an American Identity

3.12 Movement in the Early Republic

3.13 Continuity and Change in Period 3

4.1 Contextualizing Period 4

4.2 The Rise of Political Parties and the Era of Jefferson

Thematic Focus (PCE): Politics and Power — Debates fostered by social and political groups about the role of government in American social, political, and economic life shape government policy, institutions, political parties, and the rights of citizens.

Learning Objective Unit 4.B: Explain the causes and effects of policy debates in the early republic.

• KC-4.1.I.A In the early 1800s, national political parties continued to debate issues such as the tariff, powers of the federal government, and relations with European powers.
• KC-4.1.I.B Supreme Court decisions established the primacy of the judiciary in determining the meaning of the Constitution and asserted that federal laws took precedence over state laws.
• KC-4.3.I.A.i Following the Louisiana Purchase, the U.S. government sought influence and control over North America through a variety of means, including exploration and diplomatic efforts.

4.3 Politics and Regional Interests

Thematic Focus (PCE): Politics and Power — Debates fostered by social and political groups about the role of government in American social, political, and economic life shape government policy, institutions, political parties, and the rights of citizens.

Learning Objective Unit 4.C: Explain how different regional interests affected debates about the role of the federal government in the early republic.

• KC-4.1.I.D Regional interests often trumped national concerns as the basis for many political leaders’ positions on slavery and economic policy.
• KC-4.2.III.D Plans to further unify the U.S. economy, such as the American System, generated debates over whether such policies would benefit agriculture or industry, potentially favoring different sections of the country.
• KC-4.3.II.C Congressional attempts at political compromise, such as the Missouri Compromise, only temporarily stemmed growing tensions between opponents and defenders of slavery.

4.4 America on the World Stage

Thematic Focus (WOR): America in the World — Diplomatic, economic, cultural, and military interactions between empires, nations, and peoples shape the development of America and America’s increasingly important role in the world.

Learning Objective Unit 4.D: Explain how and why American foreign policy developed and expanded over time.

• KC-4.3.I Struggling to create an independent global presence, the United States sought to claim territory throughout the North American continent and promote foreign trade.
• KC-4.3.I.A.ii The U.S. government sought influence and control over the Western Hemisphere through a variety of means, including military actions, American Indian removal, and diplomatic efforts such as the Monroe Doctrine.

4.5 Market Revolution: Industrialization

Thematic Focus (WXT): Work, Exchange, and Technology — The interplay between markets, private enterprise, labor, technology, and government policy shape the American economy. In turn, economic activity shapes society and government policy and drives technological innovation.

Learning Objective Unit 4.E: Explain the causes and effects of the innovations in technology, agriculture, and commerce over time.

• KC-4.2.I.A Entrepreneurs helped to create a market revolution in production and commerce, in which market relationships between producers and consumers came to prevail as the manufacture of goods became more organized.
• KC-4.2.I.B Innovations including textile machinery, steam engines, interchangeable parts, the telegraph, and agricultural inventions increased the efficiency of production methods.
• KC-4.2.I.C Legislation and judicial systems supported the development of roads, canals, and railroads, which extended and enlarged markets and helped foster regional interdependence. Transportation networks linked the North and Midwest more closely than they linked regions in the South.
• KC-4.2.III.B Increasing Southern cotton production and the related growth of Northern manufacturing, banking, and shipping industries promoted the development of national and international commercial ties.

4.6 Market Revolution: Society and Culture

Thematic Focus (SOC): Social Structures — Social categories, roles, and practices are created, maintained, challenged, and transformed throughout American history, shaping government policy, economic systems, culture, and the lives of citizens.

Learning Objective Unit 4.F: Explain how and why innovation in technology, agriculture, and commerce affected various segments of American society over time.

• KC-4.2.III.A Large numbers of international migrants moved to industrializing Northern cities, while many Americans moved west of the Appalachians, developing thriving new communities along the Ohio and Mississippi rivers.
• KC-4.2.II.B The growth of manufacturing drove a significant increase in prosperity and standards of living for some; this led to the emergence of a larger middle class and a small but wealthy business elite, but also to a large and growing population of laboring poor.
• KC-4.2.II.A Increasing numbers of Americans, especially women and men working in factories, no longer relied on semi-subsistence agriculture; instead they supported themselves producing goods for distant markets.
• KC-4.2.II.C Gender and family roles changed in response to the market revolution, particularly with the growth of definitions of domestic ideals that emphasized the separation of public and private spheres.

4.7 Expanding Democracy

Thematic Focus (PCE): Politics and Power — Debates fostered by social and political groups about the role of government in American social, political, and economic life shape government policy, institutions, political parties, and the rights of citizens.

Learning Objective Unit 4.G: Explain the causes and effects of the expansion of participatory democracy from 1800 to 1848.

• KC-4.1.I The nation’s transition to a more participatory democracy was achieved by expanding suffrage from a system based on property ownership to one based on voting by all adult white men, and it was accompanied by the growth of political parties.

4.8 Jackson and Federal Power

Thematic Focus (PCE): Politics and Power — Debates fostered by social and political groups about the role of government in American social, political, and economic life shape government policy, institutions, political parties, and the rights of citizens.

Learning Objective Unit 4.H: Explain the causes and effects of continuing policy debates about the role of the federal government from 1800 to 1848.

• KC-4.1.I.C By the 1820s and 1830s, new political parties arose—the Democrats, led by Andrew Jackson, and the Whigs, led by Henry Clay— that disagreed about the role and powers of the federal government and issues such as the national bank, tariffs, and federally funded internal improvements.
• KC-4.3.I.B Frontier settlers tended to champion expansion efforts, while American Indian resistance led to a sequence of wars and federal efforts to control and relocate American Indian populations.

4.9 The Development of an American Culture

Thematic Focus (ARC): American and Regional Culture — Creative expression, demographic change, philosophy, religious beliefs, scientific ideas, social mores, and technology shape national, regional, and group cultures in America, and these varying cultures often play a role in shaping government policy and developing economic systems.

Learning Objective Unit 4.I: Explain how and why a new national culture developed from 1800 to 1848.

• KC-4.1.II.B A new national culture emerged that combined American elements, European influences, and regional cultural sensibilities.
• KC-4.1.II.C Liberal social ideas from abroad and Romantic beliefs in human perfectibility influenced literature, art, philosophy, and architecture.

4.12 African Americans in the Early Republic

Thematic Focus (SOC): Social Structures — Social categories, roles, and practices are created, maintained, challenged, and transformed throughout American history, shaping government policy, economic systems, culture, and the lives of citizens.

Learning Objective Unit 4.L: Explain the continuities and changes in the experience of African Americans from 1800 to 1848.

• KC-4.1.III.B.ii Antislavery efforts in the South were largely limited to unsuccessful rebellions by enslaved people.
• KC-4.1.II.D Enslaved blacks and free African Americans created communities and strategies to protect their dignity and family structures, and they joined political efforts aimed at changing their status.

4.13 The Society of the South in the Early Republic

Thematic Focus (GEO): Geography and the Environment — Geographic and environmental factors, including competition over and debates about natural resources, shape the development of America and foster regional diversity. The development of America impacts the environment and reshapes geography, which leads to debates about environmental and geographic issues.

Learning Objective Unit 4.M: Explain how geographic and environmental factors shaped the development of the South from 1800 to 1848.

• KC-4.3.II.B.ii In the South, although the majority of Southerners owned no enslaved persons, most leaders argued that slavery was part of the Southern way of life.
• KC-4.2.III.C Southern business leaders continued to rely on the production and export of traditional agricultural staples, contributing to the growth of a distinctive Southern regional identity.
• KC-4.3.II.A As overcultivation depleted arable land in the Southeast, slaveholders began relocating their plantations to more fertile lands west of the Appalachians, where the institution of slavery continued to grow.

4.14 Causation in Period 4

Learning Objective Unit 4.N: Explain the extent to which politics, economics, and foreign policy promoted the development of American identity from 1800 to 1848.

• KC-4.1 The United States began to develop a modern democracy and celebrated a new national culture, while Americans sought to define the nation’s democratic ideals and change their society and institutions to match them.
  • KC-4.1.I The nation’s transition to a more participatory democracy was achieved by expanding suffrage from a system based on property ownership to one based on voting by all adult white men, and it was accompanied by the growth of political parties.
  • KC-4.1.II While Americans embraced a new national culture, various groups developed distinctive cultures of their own.
  • KC-4.1.III Increasing numbers of Americans, many inspired by new religious and intellectual movements, worked primarily outside of government institutions to advance their ideals.
• KC-4.2 Innovations in technology, agriculture, and commerce powerfully accelerated the American economy, precipitating profound changes to U.S. society and to national and regional identities.
  • KC-4.2.I New transportation systems and technologies dramatically expanded manufacturing and agricultural production.
  • KC-4.2.II The changes caused by the market revolution had significant effects on U.S. society, workers’ lives, and gender and family relations.
  • KC-4.2.III Economic development shaped settlement and trade patterns, helping to unify the nation while also encouraging the growth of different regions.
• KC-4.3 The U.S. interest in increasing foreign trade and expanding its national borders shaped the nation’s foreign policy and spurred government and private initiatives.
  • KC-4.3.I Struggling to create an independent global presence, the United States sought to claim territory throughout the North American continent and promote foreign trade.
  • KC-4.3.II The United States’ acquisition of lands in the West gave rise to contests over the extension of slavery into new territories.

5.1 Contextualizing Period 5

Learning Objective Unit 5.A: Explain the context in which sectional conflict emerged from 1844 to 1877.

• KC-5.1 The United States became more connected with the world, pursued an expansionist foreign policy in the Western Hemisphere, and emerged as the destination for many migrants from other countries.
  • KC-5.1.I Popular enthusiasm for U.S. expansion, bolstered by economic and security interests, resulted in the acquisition of new territories, substantial migration westward, and new overseas initiatives.
  • KC-5.1.II In the 1840s and 1850s, Americans continued to debate questions about rights and citizenship for various groups of U.S. inhabitants.
• KC-5.2 Intensified by expansion and deepening regional divisions, debates over slavery and other economic, cultural, and political issues led the nation into civil war.
  • KC-5.2.I Ideological and economic differences over slavery produced an array of diverging responses from Americans in the North and the South.
  • KC-5.2.II Debates over slavery came to dominate political discussion in the 1850s, culminating in the bitter election of 1860 and the secession of Southern states.
• KC-5.3 The Union victory in the Civil War and the contested reconstruction of the South settled the issues of slavery and secession, but left unresolved many questions about the power of the federal government and citizenship rights.
  • KC-5.3.I The North’s greater manpower and industrial resources, the leadership of Abraham Lincoln and others, and the decision to emancipate enslaved people eventually led to the Union military victory over the Confederacy in the devastating Civil War.
  • KC-5.3.II.i Reconstruction and the Civil War ended slavery, altered relationships between the states and the federal government, and led to debates over new definitions of citizenship, particularly regarding the rights of African Americans, women, and other minorities.

5.2 Manifest Destiny

Thematic Focus (GEO): Geography and the Environment — Geographic and environmental factors, including competition over and debates about natural resources, shape the development of America and foster regional diversity. The development of America impacts the environment and reshapes geography, which leads to debates about environmental and geographic issues.

Learning Objective Unit 5.B: Explain the causes and effects of westward expansion from 1844 to 1877.

• KC-5.1.I.A The desire for access to natural and mineral resources and the hope of many settlers for economic opportunities or religious refuge led to an increased migration to and settlement in the West.
• KC-5.1.I.B Advocates of annexing western lands argued that Manifest Destiny and the superiority of American institutions compelled the United States to expand its borders westward to the Pacific Ocean; however, this frequently provoked competition and violent conflict.
• KC-5.1.I.D Westward migration was boosted during and after the Civil War by the passage of new legislation promoting western transportation and economic development.
• KC-5.1.I.E U.S. interest in expanding trade led to economic, diplomatic, and cultural initiatives to create more ties with Asia.

5.3 The Mexican–American War

Thematic Focus (WOR): America in the World — Diplomatic, economic, cultural, and military interactions between empires, nations, and peoples shape the development of America and America’s increasingly important role in the world.

Learning Objective Unit 5.C: Explain the causes and effects of the Mexican– American War.

• KC-5.1.I.C The United States added large territories in the West through victory in the Mexican– American War and diplomatic negotiations, raising questions about the status of slavery, American Indians, and Mexicans in the newly acquired lands.
• KC-5.1.II.C U.S. government interaction and conflict with Mexican Americans and American Indians increased in regions newly taken from American Indians and Mexico, altering these groups’ economic self-sufficiency and cultures.

5.4 The Compromise of 1850

Thematic Focus (NAT): American and National Identity — The development of and debates about democracy, freedom, citizenship, diversity, and individualism shape American national identity, cultural values, and beliefs about American exceptionalism, and in turn, these ideas shape political institutions and society. Throughout American history, notions of national identity and culture have coexisted with varying degrees of regional and group identities.

Learning Objective Unit 5.D: Explain the similarities and differences in how regional attitudes affected federal policy in the period after the Mexican–American War.

• KC-5.2.II.A The Mexican Cession led to heated controversies over whether to allow slavery in the newly acquired territories.
• KC-5.2.II.B.i The courts and national leaders made a variety of attempts to resolve the issue of slavery in the territories, including the Compromise of 1850.

5.5 Sectional Conflict: Regional Differences

Thematic Focus (ARC): American and Regional Culture — Creative expression, demographic change, philosophy, religious beliefs, scientific ideas, social mores, and technology shape national, regional, and group cultures in America, and these varying cultures often play a role in shaping government policy and developing economic systems.

Thematic Focus (SOC): Social Structures — Social categories, roles, and practices are created, maintained, challenged, and transformed throughout American history, shaping government policy, economic systems, culture, and the lives of citizens.

Learning Objective Unit 5.E: Explain the effects of immigration from various parts of the world on American culture from 1844 to 1877.

• KC-5.1.II.A Substantial numbers of international migrants continued to arrive in the United States from Europe and Asia, mainly from Ireland and Germany, often settling in ethnic communities where they could preserve elements of their languages and customs.
• KC-5.1.II.B A strongly anti-Catholic nativist movement arose that was aimed at limiting new immigrants’ political power and cultural influence.

Learning Objective Unit 5.F: Explain how regional differences related to slavery caused tension in the years leading up to the Civil War.

• KC-5.2.I.A The North’s expanding manufacturing economy relied on free labor in contrast to the Southern economy’s dependence on enslaved labor. Some Northerners did not object to slavery on principle but claimed that slavery would undermine the free labor market. As a result, a free-soil movement arose that portrayed the expansion of slavery as incompatible with free labor.
• KC-5.2.I.B African American and white abolitionists, although a minority in the North, mounted a highly visible campaign against slavery, presenting moral arguments against the institution, assisting escapes, and sometimes expressing a willingness to use violence to achieve their goals.
• KC-5.2.I.C Defenders of slavery based their arguments on racial doctrines, the view that slavery was a positive social good, and the belief that slavery and states’ rights were protected by the Constitution.

5.6 Failure of Compromise

Thematic Focus (PCE): Politics and Power — Debates fostered by social and political groups about the role of government in American social, political, and economic life shape government policy, institutions, political parties, and the rights of citizens.

Learning Objective Unit 5.G: Explain the political causes of the Civil War.

• KC-5.2.II.B.ii The courts and national leaders made a variety of attempts to resolve the issue of slavery in the territories, including the Kansas–Nebraska Act, and the Dred Scott decision, but these ultimately failed to reduce conflict.
• KC-5.2.II.C The Second Party System ended when the issues of slavery and anti-immigrant nativism weakened loyalties to the two major parties and fostered the emergence of sectional parties, most notably the Republican Party in the North.

5.7 Election of 1860 and Secession

Thematic Focus (PCE): Politics and Power — Debates fostered by social and political groups about the role of government in American social, political, and economic life shape government policy, institutions, political parties, and the rights of citizens.

Learning Objective Unit 5.H: Describe the effects of Lincoln’s election.

• KC-5.2.II.D Abraham Lincoln’s victory on the Republicans’ free-soil platform in the presidential election of 1860 was accomplished without any Southern electoral votes. After a series of contested debates about secession, most slave states voted to secede from the Union, precipitating the Civil War.

5.8 Military Conflict in the Civil War

Thematic Focus (WOR): America in the World — Diplomatic, economic, cultural, and military interactions between empires, nations, and peoples shape the development of America and America’s increasingly important role in the world.

Learning Objective Unit 5.I: Explain the various factors that contributed to the Union victory in the Civil War.

• KC-5.3.I.A Both the Union and the Confederacy mobilized their economies and societies to wage the war even while facing considerable home front opposition.
• KC-5.3.I.D Although the Confederacy showed military initiative and daring early in the war, the Union ultimately succeeded due to improvements in leadership and strategy, key victories, greater resources, and the wartime destruction of the South’s infrastructure.

5.9 Government Policies During the Civil War

Thematic Focus (NAT): American and National Identity — The development of and debates about democracy, freedom, citizenship, diversity, and individualism shape American national identity, cultural values, and beliefs about American exceptionalism, and in turn, these ideas shape political institutions and society. Throughout American history, notions of national identity and culture have coexisted with varying degrees of regional and group identities.

Learning Objective Unit 5.J: Explain how Lincoln’s leadership during the Civil War impacted American ideals over the course of the war.

• KC-5.3.I.B Lincoln and most Union supporters began the Civil War to preserve the Union, but Lincoln’s decision to issue the Emancipation Proclamation reframed the purpose of the war and helped prevent the Confederacy from gaining full diplomatic support from European powers. Many African Americans fled southern plantations and enlisted in the Union Army, helping to undermine the Confederacy.
• KC-5.3.I.C Lincoln sought to reunify the country and used speeches such as the Gettysburg Address to portray the struggle against slavery as the fulfillment of America’s founding democratic ideals.

5.10 Reconstruction

Thematic Focus (PCE): Politics and Power — Debates fostered by social and political groups about the role of government in American social, political, and economic life shape government policy, institutions, political parties, and the rights of citizens.

Learning Objective Unit 5.K: Explain the effects of government policy during Reconstruction on society from 1865 to 1877.

• KC-5.3.II.ii Reconstruction altered relationships between the states and the federal government and led to debates over new definitions of citizenship, particularly regarding the rights of African Americans, women, and other minorities.
• KC-5.3.II.A The 13th Amendment abolished slavery, while the 14th and 15th amendments granted African Americans citizenship, equal protection under the laws, and voting rights.
• KC-5.3.II.B The women’s rights movement was both emboldened and divided over the 14th and 15th amendments to the Constitution.
• KC-5.3.II.C Efforts by radical and moderate Republicans to change the balance of power between Congress and the presidency and to reorder race relations in the defeated South yielded some short-term successes. Reconstruction opened up political opportunities and other leadership roles to formerly enslaved persons but it ultimately failed, due both to determined Southern resistance and the North’s waning resolve.

5.12 Comparison in Period 5

Learning Objective Unit 5.M: Compare the relative significance of the effects of the Civil War on American values.

• KC-5.1 The United States became more connected with the world, pursued an expansionist foreign policy in the Western Hemisphere, and emerged as the destination for many migrants from other countries.
  • KC-5.1.I Popular enthusiasm for U.S. expansion, bolstered by economic and security interests, resulted in the acquisition of new territories, substantial migration westward, and new overseas initiatives.
  • KC-5.1.II In the 1840s and 1850s, Americans continued to debate questions about rights and citizenship for various groups of U.S. inhabitants.
• KC-5.2 Intensified by expansion and deepening regional divisions, debates over slavery and other economic, cultural, and political issues led the nation into civil war.
  • KC-5.2.I Ideological and economic differences over slavery produced an array of diverging responses from Americans in the North and the South.
  • KC-5.2.II Debates over slavery came to dominate political discussion in the 1850s, culminating in the bitter election of 1860 and the secession of Southern states.
• KC-5.3 The Union victory in the Civil War and the contested reconstruction of the South settled the issues of slavery and secession, but left unresolved many questions about the power of the federal government and citizenship rights.
  • KC-5.3.I The North’s greater manpower and industrial resources, the leadership of Abraham Lincoln and others, and the decision to emancipate enslaved people eventually led to the Union military victory over the Confederacy in the devastating Civil War.
  • KC-5.3.II.i Reconstruction and the Civil War ended slavery, altered relationships between the states and the federal government, and led to debates over new definitions of citizenship, particularly regarding the rights of African Americans, women, and other minorities.

6.1 Contextualizing Period 6

Learning Objective Unit 6.A: Explain the historical context for the rise of industrial capitalism in the United States.

• KC-6.1 Technological advances, large-scale production methods, and the opening of new markets encouraged the rise of industrial capitalism in the United States.
  • KC-6.1.I Large-scale industrial production— accompanied by massive technological change, expanding international communication networks, and pro-growth government policies—generated rapid economic development and business consolidation.
  • KC-6.1.II A variety of perspectives on the economy and labor developed during a time of financial panics and downturns.
  • KC-6.1.III New systems of production and transportation enabled consolidation within agriculture, which, along with periods of instability, spurred a variety of responses from farmers.
• KC-6.2 The migrations that accompanied industrialization transformed both urban and rural areas of the United States and caused dramatic social and cultural change.
  • KC-6.2.I International and internal migration increased urban populations and fostered the growth of a new urban culture.
  • KC-6.2.II Larger numbers of migrants moved to the West in search of land and economic opportunity, frequently provoking competition and violent conflict.
• KC-6.3 The Gilded Age produced new cultural and intellectual movements, public reform efforts, and political debates over economic and social policies.
  • KC-6.3.I New cultural and intellectual movements both buttressed and challenged the social order of the Gilded Age.
  • KC-6.3.II Dramatic social changes in the period inspired political debates over citizenship, corruption, and the proper relationship between business and government.

6.2 Westward Expansion: Economic Development

Thematic Focus (MIG): Migration and Settlement — Push and pull factors shape immigration to and migration within America, and the demographic change as a result of these moves shapes the migrants, society, and the environment.

Learning Objective Unit 6.B: Explain the causes and effects of the settlement of the West from 1877 to 1898.

• KC-6.1.III.A Improvements in mechanization helped agricultural production increase substantially and contributed to declines in food prices.
• KC-6.1.III.B Many farmers responded to the increasing consolidation in agricultural markets and their dependence on the evolving railroad system by creating local and regional cooperative organizations.
• KC-6.1.I.A Following the Civil War, government subsidies for transportation and communication systems helped open new markets in North America.
• KC-6.2.II.A The building of transcontinental railroads, the discovery of mineral resources, and government policies promoted economic growth and created new communities and centers of commercial activity.

6.3 Westward Expansion: Social and Cultural Development

Thematic Focus (MIG): Migration and Settlement — Push and pull factors shape immigration to and migration within America, and the demographic change as a result of these moves shapes the migrants, society, and the environment.

Learning Objective Unit 6.B: Explain the causes and effects of the settlement of the West from 1877 to 1898.

• KC-6.2.II.B In hopes of achieving ideals of self-sufficiency and independence, migrants moved to both rural and boomtown areas of the West for opportunities, such as building the railroads, mining, farming, and ranching.
• KC-6.2.II.C As migrant populations increased in number and the American bison population was decimated, competition for land and resources in the West among white settlers, American Indians, and Mexican Americans led to an increase in violent conflict.
• KC-6.2.II.D The U.S. government violated treaties with American Indians and responded to resistance with military force, eventually confining American Indians to reservations and denying tribal sovereignty.
• KC-6.2.II.E Many American Indians preserved their cultures and tribal identities despite government policies promoting assimilation, and they attempted to develop self-sustaining economic practices.

6.4 The “New South”

6.5 Technological Innovation

6.6 The Rise of Industrial Capitalism

6.7 Labor in the Gilded Age

6.8 Immigration and Migration in the Gilded Age

Thematic Focus (MIG): Migration and Settlement — Push and pull factors shape immigration to and migration within America, and the demographic change as a result of these moves shapes the migrants, society, and the environment.

Learning Objective Unit 6.F: Explain how cultural and economic factors affected migration patterns over time.

• KC-6.1.II.B.ii The industrial workforce expanded and became more diverse through internal and international migration.
• KC-6.2.I.A As cities became areas of economic growth featuring new factories and businesses, they attracted immigrants from Asia and southern and eastern Europe, as well as African American migrants within and out of the South. Many migrants moved to escape poverty, religious persecution, and limited opportunities for social mobility in their home countries or regions.
• KC-6.2.I.B Urban neighborhoods based on particular ethnicities, races, and classes provided new cultural opportunities for city dwellers.

6.9 Responses to Immigration in the Gilded Age

Thematic Focus (MIG): Migration and Settlement — Push and pull factors shape immigration to and migration within America, and the demographic change as a result of these moves shapes the migrants, society, and the environment.

Learning Objective Unit 6.G: Explain the various responses to immigration in the period over time.

• KC-6.2.I.C Increasing public debates over assimilation and Americanization accompanied the growth of international migration. Many immigrants negotiated compromises between the cultures they brought and the culture they found in the United States.
• KC-6.3.I.A Social commentators advocated theories later described as Social Darwinism to justify the success of those at the top of the socioeconomic structure as both appropriate and inevitable.
• KC-6.3.II.B.i Many women, like Jane Addams, worked in settlement houses to help immigrants adapt to U.S. language and customs.

6.10 Development of the Middle Class

Thematic Focus (SOC): Social Structures — Social categories, roles, and practices are created, maintained, challenged, and transformed throughout American history, shaping government policy, economic systems, culture, and the lives of citizens.

Learning Objective Unit 6.H: Explain the causes of increased economic opportunity and its effects on society.

• KC-6.2.I.E Corporations’ need for managers and for male and female clerical workers, as well as increased access to educational institutions, fostered the growth of a distinctive middle class. A growing amount of leisure time also helped expand consumer culture.
• KC-6.3.I.B Some business leaders argued that the wealthy had a moral obligation to help the less fortunate and improve society, as articulated in the idea known as the Gospel of Wealth, and they made philanthropic contributions that enhanced educational opportunities and urban environments.

6.11 Reform in the Gilded Age

Thematic Focus (SOC): Social Structures — Social categories, roles, and practices are created, maintained, challenged, and transformed throughout American history, shaping government policy, economic systems, culture, and the lives of citizens.

Learning Objective Unit 6.I: Explain how different reform movements responded to the rise of industrial capitalism in the Gilded Age.

• KC-6.3.I.C A number of artists and critics, including agrarians, utopians, socialists, and advocates of the Social Gospel, championed alternative visions for the economy and U.S. society.
• KC-6.3.II.B.ii Many women sought greater equality with men, often joining voluntary organizations, going to college, and promoting social and political reform.

6.12 Controversies over the Role of Government in the Gilded Age

Thematic Focus (PCE): Politics and Power — Debates fostered by social and political groups about the role of government in American social, political, and economic life shape government policy, institutions, political parties, and the rights of citizens.

Learning Objective Unit 6.J: Explain continuities and changes in the role of the government in the U.S. economy.

• KC-6.1.II.A Some argued that laissez-faire policies and competition promoted economic growth in the long run, and they opposed government intervention during economic downturns.
• KC-6.1.I.E.ii Foreign policymakers increasingly looked outside U.S. borders in an effort to gain greater influence and control over markets and natural resources in the Pacific Rim, Asia, and Latin America.

6.13 Politics in the Gilded Age

Thematic Focus (PCE): Politics and Power — Debates fostered by social and political groups about the role of government in American social, political, and economic life shape government policy, institutions, political parties, and the rights of citizens.

Learning Objective Unit 6.K: Explain the similarities and differences between the political parties during the Gilded Age.

• KC-6.1.III.C Economic instability inspired agrarian activists to create the People’s (Populist) Party, which called for a stronger governmental role in regulating the American economic system.
• KC-6.3.II.A The major political parties appealed to lingering divisions from the Civil War and contended over tariffs and currency issues, even as reformers argued that economic greed and self-interest had corrupted all levels of government.
• KC-6.2.I.D In an urban atmosphere where the access to power was unequally distributed, political machines thrived, in part by providing immigrants and the poor with social services.

6.14 Continuity and Change Period 6

Learning Objective Unit 6.L: Explain the extent to which industrialization brought change from 1865 to 1898.

• KC-6.1 Technological advances, large-scale production methods, and the opening of new markets encouraged the rise of industrial capitalism in the United States.
  • KC-6.1.I Large-scale industrial production— accompanied by massive technological change, expanding international communication networks, and pro-growth government policies—generated rapid economic development and business consolidation.
  • KC-6.1.II A variety of perspectives on the economy and labor developed during a time of financial panics and downturns.
  • KC-6.1.III New systems of production and transportation enabled consolidation within agriculture, which, along with periods of instability, spurred a variety of responses from farmers.
• KC-6.2 The migrations that accompanied industrialization transformed both urban and rural areas of the United States and caused dramatic social and cultural change.
  • KC-6.2.I International and internal migration increased urban populations and fostered the growth of a new urban culture.
  • KC-6.2.II Larger numbers of migrants moved to the West in search of land and economic opportunity, frequently provoking competition and violent conflict.
• KC-6.3 The Gilded Age produced new cultural and intellectual movements, public reform efforts, and political debates over economic and social policies.
  • KC-6.3.I New cultural and intellectual movements both buttressed and challenged the social order of the Gilded Age.
  • KC-6.3.II Dramatic social changes in the period inspired political debates over citizenship, corruption, and the proper relationship between business and government.

7.2 Imperialism: Debates

Thematic Focus (WOR): America in the World — Diplomatic, economic, cultural, and military interactions between empires, nations, and peoples shape the development of America and America’s increasingly important role in the world.

Learning Objective Unit 7.B: Explain the similarities and differences in attitudes about the nation’s proper role in the world.

• KC-7.3.I.A Imperialists cited economic opportunities, racial theories, competition with European empires, and the perception in the 1890s that the western frontier was “closed” to argue that Americans were destined to expand their culture and institutions to peoples around the globe.
• KC-7.3.I.B Anti-imperialists cited principles of self-determination and invoked both racial theories and the U.S. foreign policy tradition of isolationism to argue that the United States should not extend its territory overseas.

7.3 The Spanish–American War

Thematic Focus (WOR): America in the World — Diplomatic, economic, cultural, and military interactions between empires, nations, and peoples shape the development of America and America’s increasingly important role in the world.

Learning Objective Unit 7.C: Explain the effects of the Spanish–American War.

• KC-7.3.I.C The American victory in the Spanish–American War led to the U.S. acquisition of island territories in the Caribbean and the Pacific, an increase in involvement in Asia, and the suppression of a nationalist movement in the Philippines.

7.4 The Progressives

Thematic Focus (PCE): Politics and Power — Debates fostered by social and political groups about the role of government in American social, political, and economic life shape government policy, institutions, political parties, and the rights of citizens.

Thematic Focus (GEO): Geography and the Environment — Geographic and environmental factors, including competition over and debates about natural resources, shape the development of America and foster regional diversity. The development of America impacts the environment and reshapes geography, which leads to debates about environmental and geographic issues.

Learning Objective Unit 7.D: Compare the goals and effects of the Progressive reform movement.

• KC-7.1.II.A Some Progressive Era journalists attacked what they saw as political corruption, social injustice, and economic inequality, while reformers, often from the middle and upper classes and including many women, worked to effect social changes in cities and among immigrant populations.
• KC-7.1.II.D The Progressives were divided over many issues. Some Progressives supported Southern segregation, while others ignored its presence. Some Progressives advocated expanding popular participation in government, while others called for greater reliance on professional and technical experts to make government more efficient. Progressives also disagreed about immigration restriction.
• KC-7.1.II.B On the national level, Progressives sought federal legislation that they believed would effectively regulate the economy, expand democracy, and generate moral reform. Progressive amendments to the Constitution dealt with issues such as prohibition and women’s suffrage.

Learning Objective Unit 7.E: Compare attitudes toward the use of natural resources from 1890 to 1945.

• KC-7.1.II.C Preservationists and conservationists both supported the establishment of national parks while advocating different government responses to the overuse of natural resources.

7.7 1920s: Innovations in Communication and Technology

Thematic Focus (WXT): Work, Exchange, and Technology — The interplay between markets, private enterprise, labor, technology, and government policy shape the American economy. In turn, economic activity shapes society and government policy and drives technological innovation.

Learning Objective Unit 7.H: Explain the causes and effects of the innovations in communication and technology in the United States over time.

• KC-7.1.I.A New technologies and manufacturing techniques helped focus the U.S. economy on the production of consumer goods, contributing to improved standards of living, greater personal mobility, and better communications systems.
• KC-7.2.I.A New forms of mass media, such as radio and cinema, contributed to the spread of national culture as well as greater awareness of regional cultures.

7.9 The Great Depression

Thematic Focus (WXT): Work, Exchange, and Technology — The interplay between markets, private enterprise, labor, technology, and government policy shape the American economy. In turn, economic activity shapes society and government policy and drives technological innovation.

Learning Objective Unit 7.J: Explain the causes of the Great Depression and its effects on the economy.

• KC-7.1.I The United States continued its transition from a rural, agricultural economy to an urban, industrial economy led by large companies.
• KC-7.1.I.C Episodes of credit and market instability in the early 20th century, in particular the Great Depression, led to calls for a stronger financial regulatory system.
• KC-7.1.III During the 1930s, policymakers responded to the mass unemployment and social upheavals of the Great Depression by transforming the U.S. into a limited welfare state, redefining the goals and ideas of modern American liberalism.