Chemical energetics · ⁨אנרגטיקה כימית⁩

Every chemical reaction takes in or gives out energy. This energy change, measured at constant pressure, is the enthalpy change 焓变, with symbol $\Delta H$.

• in an exothermic 放热 reaction the system gives out heat, so the products have less energy than the reactants and $\Delta H$ is negative.
• in an endothermic 吸热 reaction the system takes in heat, so the products have more energy than the reactants and $\Delta H$ is positive.

Reaction pathway diagrams

A reaction pathway diagram 反应路径图 shows the energy of the reactants and products, and the energy "hill" between them. The height of the hill is the activation energy 活化能 — the least energy the particles need before they can react.

• exothermic: products sit lower than reactants ($\Delta H < 0$).
• endothermic: products sit higher than reactants ($\Delta H > 0$).

Standard conditions and types of enthalpy change

Energy values are compared under standard conditions 标准条件: $298\ \text{K}$ and $101\ \text{kPa}$, shown by the symbol $^{\ominus}$. Each substance is in its normal physical state at those conditions.

Energy from breaking and making bonds

During a reaction, old bonds break and new bonds form. Breaking a bond needs energy (endothermic); making a bond releases energy (exothermic). The enthalpy change of the reaction is the difference between the two:

The bond energy 键能 is the energy needed to break one mole of a particular bond in the gas state, so it is always positive. Some bond energies are exact (for one specific molecule); others are averages taken over many different molecules, so calculations using them are only approximate.

Worked example. Use bond energies to find $\Delta H$ for $\text{H}_2 + \text{Cl}_2 \rightarrow 2\text{HCl}$. Bond energies (kJ mol⁻¹): H–H $= 436$, Cl–Cl $= 242$, H–Cl $= 431$.

Measuring enthalpy change in the lab

When a reaction heats up (or cools down) a known mass of water or solution, the heat transferred is:

where $m$ is the mass, $c$ is the specific heat capacity 比热容 (how much energy raises 1 g by 1 K), and $\Delta T$ is the temperature change. The enthalpy change per mole is then:

The minus sign makes $\Delta H$ negative when the temperature rises (an exothermic reaction).

Worked example. Burning $0.50\ \text{g}$ of methanol ($M_r = 32$) raises the temperature of $100\ \text{g}$ of water by $18\ ^{\circ}\text{C}$. Find the enthalpy change of combustion per mole. ($c = 4.18\ \text{J g}^{-1}\,\text{K}^{-1}$.)

The heat released is $q = mc\Delta T = 100 \times 4.18 \times 18 = 7520\ \text{J}$. The amount burnt is $n = 0.50/32 = 0.0156\ \text{mol}$, so

Hess's law 盖斯定律 says that the total enthalpy change for a reaction is the same, no matter which route you take from reactants to products. This is because energy is conserved.

This lets you draw an energy cycle 能量循环: link the reactants and products by a direct step and by an indirect route, then add the steps so that both routes give the same total.

Hess's law is useful in two ways:

• it lets you find an enthalpy change that you cannot measure directly (for example, the formation of a compound that forms slowly or with side reactions).
• it lets you calculate $\Delta H_r$ from bond energy data, or from formation or combustion data given in the question.

• Define each enthalpy change with its exact standard conditions (e.g. combustion = one mole burned completely in excess oxygen).
• Use $\Delta H = \sum(\text{bonds broken}) - \sum(\text{bonds made})$; breaking is endothermic ($+$), making is exothermic ($-$) — getting the sign the wrong way round is the classic error.
• In $q = mc\Delta T$ use the mass of the water/solution, then divide by moles and add the minus sign for an exothermic reaction.
• Draw Hess cycles with arrows the same way round, follow the alternative route, and always give $\Delta H$ a sign and units ($\text{kJ mol}^{-1}$).