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积分与变化的累积

AP 微积分 BC · 第 6 主题

训练
讲义 词汇表
6.1

探究变化的累积

大纲
Enduring UnderstandingLearning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

CHA-4
Definite integrals allow us to solve problems involving the accumulation of change over an interval.

CHA-4.A
Interpret the meaning of areas associated with the graph of a rate of change in context.

  • CHA-4.A.1 The area of the region between the graph of a rate of change function and the $x$ axis gives the accumulation of change.
  • CHA-4.A.2 In some cases, accumulation of change can be evaluated by using geometry.
  • CHA-4.A.3 If a rate of change is positive (negative) over an interval, then the accumulated change is positive (negative).
  • CHA-4.A.4 The unit for the area of a region defined by rate of change is the unit for the rate of change multiplied by the unit for the independent variable.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

导数衡量一个,而一个积分(integral)衡量一个累积(accumulation)——从一个率累积起来的一个总量。若一个变化率在一个区间上作用,它的图象和坐标轴之间的面积(area)给出净累积变化。这个"面积 = 总变化"的思想是积分学的基础。

词汇表 训练
英文 中文 拼音
integral 积分 jī fēn
accumulation 累积 lěi jī
6.2

用黎曼和近似面积

大纲
Enduring UnderstandingLearning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

LIM-5
Definite integrals can be approximated using geometric and numerical methods.

LIM-5.A
Approximate a definite integral using geometric and numerical methods.

  • LIM-5.A.1 Definite integrals can be approximated for functions that are represented graphically, numerically, analytically, and verbally.
  • LIM-5.A.2 Definite integrals can be approximated using a left Riemann sum, a right Riemann sum, a midpoint Riemann sum, or a trapezoidal sum; approximations can be computed using either uniform or nonuniform partitions.
  • LIM-5.A.3 Definite integrals can be approximated using numerical methods, with or without technology.
  • LIM-5.A.4 Depending on the behavior of a function, it may be possible to determine whether an approximation for a definite integral is an underestimate or overestimate for the value of the definite integral.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

定积分与黎曼和
梯形和近似面积

一个黎曼和(Riemann sum)通过加起薄矩形的面积来估计一条曲线下的面积。把 $[a,b]$ 分成子区间并用每个的端点、端点或中点处的函数高度。一个梯形法(trapezoidal sum)改用梯形,对两个端点高度取平均——通常更准确。用更多、更薄的矩形,估计改善。

一个黎曼和用矩形近似一条曲线下的面积
一个黎曼和用矩形近似一条曲线下的面积
宽度 h 的条近似一条曲线下的面积
宽度 h 的条近似一条曲线下的面积

考试技能: 能够从一张表或图象计算左、右、中点和梯形估计,并基于函数是递增/递减还是上凹/下凹陈述每个是高估还是低估

探索

Approximate area with rectangles

y = ax³ + bx² + cx + d

A Riemann sum approximates the area under a curve with rectangles. Add more, thinner rectangles and the estimate converges to the exact definite integral.

词汇表 训练
英文 中文 拼音
Riemann sum 黎曼和 lí màn hé
trapezoidal sum 梯形法 tī xíng fǎ
练习卷
6.3

黎曼和、求和记号与定积分记号

大纲
Enduring UnderstandingLearning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

LIM-5
Definite integrals can be approximated using geometric and numerical methods.

LIM-5.B
Interpret the limiting case of the Riemann sum as a definite integral.

  • LIM-5.B.1 The limit of an approximating Riemann sum can be interpreted as a definite integral.
  • LIM-5.B.2 A Riemann sum, which requires a partition of an interval $I$, is the sum of products, each of which is the value of the function at a point in a subinterval multiplied by the length of that subinterval of the partition.

LIM-5.C
Represent the limiting case of the Riemann sum as a definite integral.

  • LIM-5.C.1 The definite integral of a continuous function $f$ over the interval $[a, b]$, denoted by $\int_{a}^{b} f(x)\,dx$, is the limit of Riemann sums as the widths of the subintervals approach 0. That is, $\int_{a}^{b} f(x)\,dx = \lim_{\max \Delta x_i \to 0} \sum_{i=1}^{n} f(x_i^*)\Delta x_i$, where $n$ is the number of subintervals, $\Delta x_i$ is the width of the $i$th subinterval, and $x_i^*$ is a value in the $i$th subinterval.
  • LIM-5.C.2 A definite integral can be translated into the limit of a related Riemann sum, and the limit of a Riemann sum can be written as a definite integral.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

求和记号(summation notation)$\sum_{k=1}^{n} f(x_k)\,\Delta x$ 写一个黎曼和,并让矩形数量无界地增长,给出精确的面积——定积分(definite integral):

$$\int_a^b f(x)\,dx=\lim_{n\to\infty}\sum_{k=1}^{n} f(x_k)\,\Delta x.$$
积分是黎曼和的极限;$a$$b$ 是积分的限。

词汇表 训练
英文 中文 拼音
definite integral 定积分 dìng jī fēn
6.4

微积分基本定理与累积函数

大纲
Enduring UnderstandingLearning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

FUN-5
The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus connects differentiation and integration.

FUN-5.A
Represent accumulation functions using definite integrals.

  • FUN-5.A.1 The definite integral can be used to define new functions.
    • Illustrative examples for FUN-5.A.1: $f(x) = \int_{0}^{x} e^{-t^2}\,dt$.
  • FUN-5.A.2 If $f$ is a continuous function on an interval containing $a$, then $\dfrac{d}{dx}\left( \int_{a}^{x} f(t)\,dt \right) = f(x)$, where $x$ is in the interval.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

微积分基本定理

一个累积函数(accumulation function)$g(x)=\int_a^x f(t)\,dt$ 给出从 $a$$x$ 累积的面积。微积分基本定理(FTC)(Fundamental Theorem of Calculus)说它的导数是被积函数:

$$\frac{d}{dx}\int_a^x f(t)\,dt=f(x).$$
求导和积分是互逆的运算。以一个变的上限和链式法则,$\dfrac{d}{dx}\int_a^{u(x)} f(t)\,dt=f(u(x))\,u'(x)$

探索

Accumulate area as an integral

y = ax³ + bx² + cx + d

An accumulation function $\int_a^x f(t)\,dt$ builds up signed area as $x$ moves. The Fundamental Theorem says its derivative is just $f(x)$.

词汇表 训练
英文 中文 拼音
accumulation function 累积函数 lěi jī hán shù
Fundamental Theorem of Calculus (FTC) 微积分基本定理 wēi jī fēn jī běn dìng lǐ
6.5

解释涉及面积的累积函数的性态

大纲
Enduring UnderstandingLearning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

FUN-5
The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus connects differentiation and integration.

FUN-5.A
Represent accumulation functions using definite integrals.

  • FUN-5.A.3 Graphical, numerical, analytical, and verbal representations of a function $f$ provide information about the function $g$ defined as $g(x) = \int_{a}^{x} f(t)\,dt$.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

因为 $g'(x)=f(x)$,$f$ 的图象告诉你关于 $g$ 的一切:$g$$f>0$ 的地方递增、在 $f<0$ 的地方递减、在 $f$ 穿越零的地方有极值,而在 $f$ 递增的地方上凹。从一个 $f$ 的图象读出这些联系是一个经典的自由回答任务。

6.6

应用定积分的性质

大纲
Enduring UnderstandingLearning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

FUN-6
Recognizing opportunities to apply knowledge of geometry and mathematical rules can simplify integration.

FUN-6.A
Calculate a definite integral using areas and properties of definite integrals.

  • FUN-6.A.1 In some cases, a definite integral can be evaluated by using geometry and the connection between the definite integral and area.
  • FUN-6.A.2 Properties of definite integrals include the integral of a constant times a function, the integral of the sum of two functions, reversal of limits of integration, and the integral of a function over adjacent intervals.
  • FUN-6.A.3 The definition of the definite integral may be extended to functions with removable or jump discontinuities.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

定积分遵循有用的规则:反转限使值取负($\int_b^a=-\int_a^b$)、一个零宽度区间上的积分是 $0$、它们在相邻区间上相加($\int_a^c=\int_a^b+\int_b^c$),而常数提出。用这些来组合或拆分给定的积分值。

6.7

微积分基本定理与定积分

大纲
Enduring UnderstandingLearning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

FUN-6
Recognizing opportunities to apply knowledge of geometry and mathematical rules can simplify integration.

FUN-6.B
Evaluate definite integrals analytically using the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus.

  • FUN-6.B.1 An antiderivative of a function $f$ is a function $g$ whose derivative is $f$.
  • FUN-6.B.2 If a function $f$ is continuous on an interval containing $a$, the function defined by $F(x) = \int_{a}^{x} f(t)\,dt$ is an antiderivative of $f$ for $x$ in the interval.
  • FUN-6.B.3 If $f$ is continuous on the interval $[a, b]$ and $F$ is an antiderivative of $f$, then $\int_{a}^{b} f(x)\,dx = F(b) - F(a)$.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

FTC 的求值形式用一个原函数(antiderivative)$F$(其中 $F'=f$)计算一个定积分:

$$\int_a^b f(x)\,dx=F(b)-F(a).$$
所以在 $[a,b]$ 上积分一个变化率给出量的净变化——课程里最常用的结果。

Worked example. $\displaystyle\int_1^3 (2x+1)\,dx$:一个原函数是 $F(x)=x^2+x$,所以值是 $F(3)-F(1)=12-2=10$

一个定积分是曲线和 x 轴之间有符号的面积
一个定积分是曲线和 x 轴之间有符号的面积
词汇表 训练
英文 中文 拼音
antiderivative 原函数 yuán hán shù
6.8

求原函数与不定积分:基本法则与记号

大纲
Enduring UnderstandingLearning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

FUN-6
Recognizing opportunities to apply knowledge of geometry and mathematical rules can simplify integration.

FUN-6.C
Determine antiderivatives of functions and indefinite integrals, using knowledge of derivatives.

  • FUN-6.C.1 $\int f(x)\,dx$ is an indefinite integral of the function $f$ and can be expressed as $\int f(x)\,dx = F(x) + C$, where $F'(x) = f(x)$ and $C$ is any constant.
  • FUN-6.C.2 Differentiation rules provide the foundation for finding antiderivatives.
  • FUN-6.C.3 Many functions do not have closed-form antiderivatives.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

一个不定积分(indefinite integral)$\int f(x)\,dx=F(x)+C$ 是所有原函数的族(因此有积分常数(constant of integration)$C$)。反转每个求导规则:幂法则变成 $\int x^n\,dx=\dfrac{x^{n+1}}{n+1}+C$(对 $n\neq-1$),带 $\int \frac1x\,dx=\ln|x|+C$,而 $e^x$$\sin x$$\cos x$$\sec^2 x$ 的原函数直接来自它们的导数。

词汇表 训练
英文 中文 拼音
indefinite integral 不定积分 bù dìng jī fēn
6.9

用换元法积分

大纲
Enduring UnderstandingLearning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

FUN-6
Recognizing opportunities to apply knowledge of geometry and mathematical rules can simplify integration.

FUN-6.D
For integrands requiring substitution or rearrangements into equivalent forms:
(a) Determine indefinite integrals.
(b) Evaluate definite integrals.

  • FUN-6.D.1 Substitution of variables is a technique for finding antiderivatives.
  • FUN-6.D.2 For a definite integral, substitution of variables requires corresponding changes to the limits of integration.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

u-换元(u-substitution)反转链式法则:选择 $u=g(x)$ 使得 $g'(x)$ 也出现,把 $\int f(g(x))g'(x)\,dx$ 变成 $\int f(u)\,du$。记得把 $dx$ 转换成 $du$,而对于一个定积分,要么把限改成 $u$ 值,要么在最后转换回 $x$

词汇表 训练
英文 中文 拼音
u-substitution 换元积分 huàn yuán jī fēn
6.10

用长除法与配方法积分

大纲
Enduring UnderstandingLearning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

FUN-6
Recognizing opportunities to apply knowledge of geometry and mathematical rules can simplify integration.

FUN-6.D
For integrands requiring substitution or rearrangements into equivalent forms:
(a) Determine indefinite integrals.
(b) Evaluate definite integrals.

  • FUN-6.D.3 Techniques for finding antiderivatives include rearrangements into equivalent forms, such as long division and completing the square.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

当一个有理被积函数"头重"(分子次数 $\ge$ 分母次数)时,长除法(long division)把它重写为一个多项式加一个你能积分的真分数。在分母里配方法(completing the square)把它变成一个像 $u^2+a^2$ 的形式,引向一个反正切(arctangent)原函数 $\frac1a\arctan\frac{u}{a}+C$

6.11

用分部积分法积分

大纲
Enduring UnderstandingLearning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

FUN-6
Recognizing opportunities to apply knowledge of geometry and mathematical rules can simplify integration.

FUN-6.E
For integrands requiring integration by parts:
(a) Determine indefinite integrals. BC ONLY
(b) Evaluate definite integrals. BC ONLY

  • FUN-6.E.1 Integration by parts is a technique for finding antiderivatives. BC ONLY

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

分部积分(integration by parts)反转乘积法则:

$$\int u\,dv = uv-\int v\,du.$$
选择 $u$ 使得求导时化简而 $dv$ 使得容易积分(LIATE 向导:对数、反三角、代数、三角、指数)。它处理像 $\int x e^x\,dx$$\int x\ln x\,dx$ 这样的乘积,有时应用两次。

Worked example. 对于 $\int x e^x\,dx$,选择 $u=x$($du=dx$)和 $dv=e^x\,dx$($v=e^x$):

$$\int x e^x\,dx = x e^x-\int e^x\,dx = x e^x - e^x + C = e^x(x-1)+C.$$

词汇表 训练
英文 中文 拼音
Integration by parts 分部积分 fēn bù jī fēn
6.12

用线性部分分式积分

大纲
Enduring UnderstandingLearning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

FUN-6
Recognizing opportunities to apply knowledge of geometry and mathematical rules can simplify integration.

FUN-6.F
For integrands requiring integration by linear partial fractions:
(a) Determine indefinite integrals. BC ONLY
(b) Evaluate definite integrals. BC ONLY

  • FUN-6.F.1 Some rational functions can be decomposed into sums of ratios of linear, nonrepeating factors to which basic integration techniques can be applied. BC ONLY

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

部分分式(partial fractions)把一个带一个可分解分母的有理函数拆分成更简单分数的一个和:

$$\frac{1}{(x-a)(x-b)}=\frac{A}{x-a}+\frac{B}{x-b},$$
它们每个都积分到一个对数(logarithm)。这个技法对下个单元的逻辑斯蒂微分方程至关重要。

词汇表 训练
英文 中文 拼音
Partial fractions 部分分式 bù fèn fēn shì
6.13

计算反常积分

大纲
Enduring UnderstandingLearning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

LIM-6
The use of limits allows us to show that the areas of unbounded regions may be finite.

LIM-6.A
Evaluate an improper integral or determine that the integral diverges. BC ONLY

  • LIM-6.A.1 An improper integral is an integral that has one or both limits infinite or has an integrand that is unbounded in the interval of integration. BC ONLY
  • LIM-6.A.2 Improper integrals can be determined using limits of definite integrals. BC ONLY

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

反常积分:收敛与发散

一个反常积分(improper integral)有一个积分的无穷限或被积函数里的一个无穷间断。把它作为一个极限求值:$\int_a^\infty f\,dx=\lim_{b\to\infty}\int_a^b f\,dx$。若极限是一个有限数积分收敛(converges);否则它发散(diverges)。

Worked example. $\displaystyle\int_1^\infty \frac{1}{x^2}\,dx=\lim_{b\to\infty}\left[-\frac1x\right]_1^b=\lim_{b\to\infty}\left(1-\frac1b\right)=1$,所以它收敛$1$。相比之下 $\int_1^\infty \frac1x\,dx$ 给出 $\lim_{b\to\infty}\ln b=\infty$发散——相同的被积函数形状能走任一条路。

词汇表 训练
英文 中文 拼音
improper integral 反常积分 fǎn cháng jī fēn
converges 收敛 shōu liǎn
diverges 发散 fā sàn
6.14

选择求原函数的方法

大纲

This topic is intended to focus on the skill of selecting an appropriate procedure for antidifferentiation. Students should be given opportunities to practice when and how to apply all learning objectives relating to antidifferentiation.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

BC 考试期望你辨认哪个方法适合:基本规则、换元(一个链式法则模式)、分部(一个乘积)、部分分式(一个可分解的有理式),或长除法/配方法。能够看一个积分并快速挑选正确的工具本身就是一个被考查的技能。

6.14

考试技巧

  • 积分是反求导;用幂法则 $\int x^n\,dx=\tfrac{x^{n+1}}{n+1}+C$ 并不要忘记 $+C$
  • 基本定理联系这两者:$\int_a^b f'(x)\,dx=f(b)-f(a)$,而 $\tfrac{d}{dx}\int_a^x f(t)\,dt=f(x)$
  • 黎曼和或从一张值表的梯形法则近似一个定积分。
  • 一个定积分是一个有符号的面积(坐标轴下方算负的);在符号变化处拆分以求总面积。
  • u-换元并记得相应地改变限(或反代)。

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