Integrating Using Linear Partial Fractions
Introduced| English |
|---|
| Partial fractions/ˈpɑːʃl ˈfrækʃnz/ |
| linear factor/ˈlɪnɪə ˈfæktə/ |
Break one hard fraction into easy ones
- Some rational functions can't be integrated directly, but split apart they become simple logs.
- Partial fractions 部分分式 rewrites one fraction as a sum of smaller fractions.
- Each piece has a single linear factor 一次因式 in its denominator — easy to integrate as a $\ln$.
- It's the reverse of adding fractions over a common denominator.
Set up the decomposition
- Start with a rational function whose denominator factors into distinct linear factors.
- $\dfrac{1}{(x-1)(x+2)}=\dfrac{A}{x-1}+\dfrac{B}{x+2}$ for constants $A,B$ to be found.
- Each distinct linear factor $(x-r)$ gets its own term $\dfrac{\text{constant}}{x-r}$.
- (The numerator's degree must be less than the denominator's — divide first if not.)
A rational function to split
y = a / (x − b)
A fraction over $(x-1)(x+2)$ has two vertical asymptotes; partial fractions splits it into two simple $\ln$ pieces.
The partial-fraction form of $\dfrac{1}{(x-1)(x+2)}$ is...
One constant over each distinct linear factor.
If the numerator degree is not less than the denominator degree, you must divide first.
Partial fractions needs a proper fraction.
This lesson handles denominators that factor into distinct ____ factors.
Distinct linear factors $(x-r)$.
Solve for the constants
- Multiply both sides by the common denominator to clear fractions.
- Then find $A,B$ by matching coefficients or by plugging in the roots (a fast shortcut).
- For $\dfrac{1}{(x-1)(x+2)}$: at $x=1$, $1=A(3)\Rightarrow A=\tfrac13$; at $x=-2$, $1=B(-3)\Rightarrow B=-\tfrac13$.
- Now the integral is a sum of simple pieces.
For $\dfrac{1}{(x-1)(x+2)}=\dfrac{A}{x-1}+\dfrac{B}{x+2}$, find $A$ (plug $x=1$).
At $x=1$: $1=A(3)\Rightarrow A=\tfrac13$.
Integrate the pieces
- Each $\dfrac{A}{x-r}$ integrates to $A\ln|x-r|$.
- $\displaystyle\int\dfrac{1}{(x-1)(x+2)}\,dx=\tfrac13\ln|x-1|-\tfrac13\ln|x+2|+C$.
- So a messy rational integral becomes a combination of logarithms.
- Combine or leave the logs as the answer prefers.
Each partial-fraction piece $\dfrac{A}{x-r}$ integrates to...
$\int\tfrac{A}{x-r}\,dx=A\ln|x-r|$.
$\displaystyle\int\dfrac{5}{(x-1)(x+4)}\,dx$ (with $A=1$, $B=-1$) equals...
Integrate $\tfrac{1}{x-1}-\tfrac{1}{x+4}$.
Partial fractions needs the numerator degree less than the denominator's — if not, do long division first. And it requires the denominator to actually factor into linear pieces; a repeated factor $(x-r)^2$ or an irreducible quadratic needs extra terms (beyond this lesson's distinct linear case). Each distinct factor gets exactly one constant.
Evaluate $\displaystyle\int\dfrac{5}{(x-1)(x+4)}\,dx$.
- Decompose: $\dfrac{5}{(x-1)(x+4)}=\dfrac{A}{x-1}+\dfrac{B}{x+4}$. At $x=1$: $5=5A\Rightarrow A=1$; at $x=-4$: $5=-5B\Rightarrow B=-1$.
- $\displaystyle\int\Big(\tfrac{1}{x-1}-\tfrac{1}{x+4}\Big)\,dx=\ln|x-1|-\ln|x+4|+C$.
Partial fractions splits a rational function with distinct linear factors into a sum $\frac{A}{x-r_1}+\frac{B}{x-r_2}+\cdots$; find the constants (match coefficients or plug in roots), then integrate each piece to a $\ln$. Requires numerator degree $<$ denominator degree — divide first otherwise.