A-Level Mathematics · ⁨Mathematics A-Level⁩

A quadratic 二次式 is an expression of the form $ax^2 + bx + c$, where $a \neq 0$. The letters $a$, $b$, $c$ are the coefficients 系数 (the fixed numbers). Much of this section is about solving the equation $ax^2 + bx + c = 0$.

Completing the square

To complete the square 配方 means to write the quadratic in the form

This form is useful: it shows the vertex 顶点 (turning point) of the curve at $(-p,\ q)$, and it gives a quick way to solve the equation.

Worked example. Write $9x^2 - 36x + 8$ in the form $p(x + q)^2 + r$.

Take the factor $9$ out of the first two terms, then complete the square inside:

So $p = 9$, $q = -2$, $r = -28$.

The discriminant

The discriminant 判别式 of $ax^2 + bx + c$ is

It tells you how many real roots 实根 (real solutions) the equation $ax^2 + bx + c = 0$ has:

Discriminant	Roots
$b^2 - 4ac > 0$	two distinct 相异 real roots
$b^2 - 4ac = 0$	one repeated real root
$b^2 - 4ac < 0$	no real roots

Worked example. Find the values of the constant $k$ for which $3kx^2 + (k + 8)x + 3 = 0$ has two distinct real roots.

Here $a = 3k$, $b = k + 8$, $c = 3$. For two distinct real roots you need $b^2 - 4ac > 0$:

Factorise: $(k - 4)(k - 16) > 0$, so $k < 4$ or $k > 16$. You also need $a \neq 0$, so $k \neq 0$.

Quadratic equations and inequalities

To solve a quadratic equation 二次方程, factorise, complete the square, or use the formula

To solve a quadratic inequality 二次不等式 such as $(k - 4)(k - 16) > 0$, find the two roots, then decide which side of each root makes the statement true. A sketch of the parabola 抛物线 helps: the curve is above the $x$-axis (positive) outside the roots and below it (negative) between them.

Simultaneous equations

To solve a pair of simultaneous equations 联立方程 where one is linear and one is quadratic, use substitution 代入: rearrange the linear equation for one letter, then put that into the quadratic. This gives a single quadratic to solve.

Equations that are quadratic in disguise

Some equations are quadratic in some function of $x$. For example $x^4 - 5x^2 + 4 = 0$ is quadratic in $x^2$: let $u = x^2$, solve $u^2 - 5u + 4 = 0$, then go back to $x$. You will use this idea again in trigonometry.

A function 函数 is a rule that sends each input to exactly one output. Write it as $f(x)$. The composition of functions 复合函数 $fg(x)$ means apply $g$ first, then apply $f$ to the result.

• The domain 定义域 is the set of allowed inputs $x$.
• The range 值域 is the set of outputs the function actually produces.

A function is one-one 一一对应 if different inputs always give different outputs. (No output is repeated.) Only a one-one function has an inverse function 反函数 $f^{-1}$, which reverses the rule.

The composition 复合 of two functions means doing one after the other. $fg(x)$ means "do $g$ first, then $f$": $fg(x) = f(g(x))$. The composite function $fg$ exists only when the range of $g$ lies inside the domain of $f$.

Finding an inverse

To find $f^{-1}$: write $y = f(x)$, make $x$ the subject, then swap letters.

Worked example. The function $f(x) = (x + 3)^2 - 12$ is defined for $x \geqslant 0$. Find $f^{-1}(x)$.

Write $y = (x + 3)^2 - 12$ and solve for $x$:

You take the positive square root because $x \geqslant 0$ means $x + 3 \geqslant 3 > 0$. So

Graphs of inverses and transformations

The graph of $y = f^{-1}(x)$ is the reflection 反射 of $y = f(x)$ in the line $y = x$.

You should know these transformations 变换 of $y = f(x)$:

New equation	Effect on the graph
$y = f(x) + a$	translation 平移 up by $a$
$y = f(x + a)$	translation left by $a$
$y = a\,f(x)$	stretch 伸缩 in the $y$-direction, scale factor $a$
$y = f(ax)$	stretch in the $x$-direction, scale factor $\tfrac{1}{a}$

When two transformations are combined, the order can matter. State each one fully (type, direction, and amount).

Coordinate geometry 坐标几何 studies lines and circles using their equations.

Straight lines

The gradient 斜率 (steepness) of the line joining $(x_1, y_1)$ and $(x_2, y_2)$ is

You can write the equation of a straight line 直线方程 in any of these forms: Two lines are parallel 平行 when their gradients are equal, and perpendicular 垂直 (at right angles) when the product of their gradients is $-1$.

Circles

The circle 圆 with centre 圆心 $(a, b)$ and radius 半径 $r$ has equation

An expanded form like $x^2 + y^2 - 6x + 10y - 27 = 0$ is the same circle: complete the square in $x$ and in $y$ to find the centre and radius.

A tangent 切线 to a circle touches it at one point and is perpendicular to the radius at that point. This right-angle fact solves most circle problems.

Worked example. The points $P(1, 1)$ and $Q(7, 11)$ are the ends of a diameter 直径 of a circle. Find the equation of the circle.

The centre is the midpoint of $PQ$:

The radius is half the length of $PQ$: So the circle is $(x - 4)^2 + (y - 6)^2 = 34$.

Radians

A radian 弧度 is another way to measure angles. One radian is the angle at the centre of a circle that cuts off an arc 弧 equal in length to the radius. The link between radians and degrees 度 is

So to change degrees to radians, multiply by $\dfrac{\pi}{180}$; to change radians to degrees, multiply by $\dfrac{180}{\pi}$.

Arc length and sector area

For a sector 扇形 with radius $r$ and angle $\theta$ in radians:

A chord 弦 cuts the sector into a triangle and a segment 弓形. The segment area is the sector minus the triangle:

Worked example. A sector has centre $O$ and the angle at $O$ is $\tfrac{2}{3}\pi$ radians. Show that the segment cut off by the chord has area about $0.614 r^2$.

Graphs and exact values

You must know the shape of the graphs of the sine 正弦, cosine 余弦 and tangent function 正切 (written $\sin$, $\cos$, $\tan$). The sine and cosine graphs wave between $-1$ and $1$ and repeat every $360^\circ$ ($2\pi$). Learn these exact values:

$\theta$	$30^\circ$	$45^\circ$	$60^\circ$
$\sin\theta$	$\tfrac12$	$\tfrac{1}{\sqrt2}$	$\tfrac{\sqrt3}{2}$
$\cos\theta$	$\tfrac{\sqrt3}{2}$	$\tfrac{1}{\sqrt2}$	$\tfrac12$
$\tan\theta$	$\tfrac{1}{\sqrt3}$	$1$	$\sqrt3$

The notations $\sin^{-1}x$, $\cos^{-1}x$, $\tan^{-1}x$ mean the inverse angle (the principal value 主值).

Identities

An identity 恒等式 is true for every value of the angle. The two you must know are

Use them to rewrite an equation so it contains only one trig function.

Solving trigonometric equations

To solve a trigonometric equation 三角方程, first reduce it to one function, then find every solution in the given interval.

Worked example. Solve $6\sin\theta = 1 + \dfrac{2}{\sin\theta}$ for $-180^\circ < \theta < 180^\circ$.

Multiply through by $\sin\theta$ to clear the fraction. This makes a quadratic in $\sin\theta$:

So $\sin\theta = \tfrac23$ or $\sin\theta = -\tfrac12$.

• $\sin\theta = \tfrac23$: $\theta = 41.8^\circ$ or $\theta = 180^\circ - 41.8^\circ = 138.2^\circ$.
• $\sin\theta = -\tfrac12$: $\theta = -30^\circ$ or $\theta = -150^\circ$.

The four solutions are $\theta = -150^\circ,\ -30^\circ,\ 41.8^\circ,\ 138.2^\circ$.

The binomial expansion

For a positive integer $n$, the binomial expansion 二项展开式 is

where $\binom{n}{r} = \dfrac{n!}{r!\,(n - r)!}$ is a binomial coefficient 二项式系数.

Worked example. Find the first three terms, in ascending powers of $x$, of $(2 - px)^5$.

Arithmetic and geometric progressions

A progression 数列 (sequence) is a list of terms following a rule.

• An arithmetic progression 等差数列 (AP) adds a fixed common difference 公差 $d$ each step. The $n$th term 项 is $u_n = a + (n - 1)d$, and the sum of the first $n$ terms is $S_n = \tfrac{n}{2}\big(2a + (n - 1)d\big)$.
• A geometric progression 等比数列 (GP) multiplies by a fixed common ratio 公比 $r$ each step. The $n$th term is $u_n = ar^{\,n-1}$, and $S_n = \dfrac{a(1 - r^n)}{1 - r}$.

A GP is convergent — it converges 收敛 (settles to a limit) — when $|r| < 1$. Then it has a sum to infinity 无穷和

Worked example. The third term of a GP is $18$ and the sum of the first three terms is $26$. The common ratio is negative. Find the sum to infinity.

From $ar^2 = 18$ you get $a = \dfrac{18}{r^2}$. Put this into $a(1 + r + r^2) = 26$:

The ratio is negative, so $r = -\tfrac34$ and $a = \dfrac{18}{(3/4)^2} = 32$. Then

Differentiation 微分 finds the gradient of a curve 曲线斜率 at each point. The gradient is the limit 极限 of the gradients of shorter and shorter chords, called the derivative 导数.

The rules

Write the derivative as $f'(x)$ or $\dfrac{dy}{dx}$. The basic rule is

Differentiate sums term by term, and use the chain rule 链式法则 for a function inside a function: Differentiating again gives the second derivative 二阶导数 $f''(x)$ or $\dfrac{d^2y}{dx^2}$.

Using the derivative

• Tangent and normal. The gradient of the curve at a point is the gradient of the tangent there. The normal 法线 is perpendicular to the tangent, so its gradient is $-\dfrac{1}{\text{(tangent gradient)}}$.
• Increasing or decreasing. The function is an increasing function 增函数 where $\dfrac{dy}{dx} > 0$, and a decreasing function 减函数 where $\dfrac{dy}{dx} < 0$.
• Rate of change. A derivative is a rate of change 变化率. Linked rates use the chain rule, e.g. $\dfrac{dy}{dt} = \dfrac{dy}{dx}\cdot\dfrac{dx}{dt}$.

Stationary points

A stationary point 驻点 is where $\dfrac{dy}{dx} = 0$. Test its nature with the second derivative: $f''(x) > 0$ gives a minimum point 极小值点, and $f''(x) < 0$ gives a maximum point 极大值点. When $f''(x) = 0$ the test is inconclusive: the point may be a point of inflexion 拐点, where the curve changes concavity (the way it bends) – check the sign of $\dfrac{dy}{dx}$ just before and after to decide.

Worked example. The curve $y = 4x^{1/2} - x$ has a maximum point at $x = a$. Find $a$.

So $a = 4$.

Integration 积分 is the reverse of differentiation. Reversing the power rule gives

The $+\,C$ is the constant of integration 积分常数. If you know one point on the curve, substitute it to find $C$.

Definite integrals and area

A definite integral 定积分 has limits and gives a number:

The area of the region 区域 between a curve and the $x$-axis, from $x = p$ to $x = q$, is $\displaystyle\int_p^q y \, dx$. For the area between two curves, integrate (top curve $-$ bottom curve).

Worked example. The curve $y = 4x^{1/2} - x$ meets the $x$-axis again at $x = 16$. Find the area between the curve and the $x$-axis from $x = 0$ to $x = 4$.

An improper integral 广义积分 has an infinite limit or an endpoint where the integrand is undefined; evaluate it as a limit. For example,

and $\displaystyle\int_0^{1}x^{-1/2}\, dx=\left[2x^{1/2}\right]_0^{1}=2$, which is finite even though the integrand blows up at $x=0$.

Volume of revolution

When a region is turned all the way around an axis it sweeps out a solid. The volume of revolution 旋转体体积 about the $x$-axis is

and about the $y$-axis it is $V = \pi \displaystyle\int x^2 \, dy$. For example, the region under $y = \sqrt{x}$ from $x = 0$ to $x = 4$, turned about the $x$-axis, has volume $\pi\displaystyle\int_0^4 x\, dx = \pi\big[\tfrac{x^2}{2}\big]_0^4 = 8\pi$.

• Show every line of algebra — method marks are lost by jumping steps; use the discriminant $b^2 - 4ac$ to decide the number of real roots.
• Work in radians for circular measure (arc $= r\theta$, sector area $= \frac{1}{2}r^2\theta$) and for calculus of trig functions.
• For differentiation, set $\frac{dy}{dx} = 0$ for stationary points and use the second derivative to classify them.
• For integration, add $+ c$ to an indefinite integral and use limits for area; an area below the axis gives a negative integral.

The modulus

The modulus 绝对值 $|x|$ is the size of a number with its sign removed, so $|x| \geqslant 0$ always. The graph of $y = |ax + b|$ is a "V" shape that bounces off the $x$-axis. Two useful rules for solving equations and inequalities are

Worked example. Solve $|3x + 8| < 9$.

Using the second rule with the inequality written as $-9 < 3x + 8 < 9$:

Polynomial division and the factor and remainder theorems

A polynomial 多项式 is a sum of powers of $x$, such as $2x^4 + 3x^2 - 5$. Its degree 次数 is the highest power. When you divide one polynomial by another you get a quotient 商 and a remainder 余数.

• Remainder theorem 余数定理: the remainder when $p(x)$ is divided by $(x - a)$ is $p(a)$.
• Factor theorem 因式定理: $(x - a)$ is a factor of $p(x)$ exactly when $p(a) = 0$.

Worked example. The polynomial $p(x) = 2x^4 + kx^3 + kx^2 + 17x + 18$ has factor $(x + 2)$. Find $k$.

By the factor theorem $p(-2) = 0$:

A logarithm answers the question "what power?". If $a^x = y$ then $x = \log_a y$. Logarithms and indices 指数 (powers) are reverse ideas. The laws of logarithms 对数定律 are

The exponential function $e^x$ and the natural logarithm 自然对数 $\ln x$ are inverse functions, so $\ln(e^x) = x$ and $e^{\ln x} = x$. When the unknown is in the power, take logs of both sides.

Worked example. Solve $4^x < 0.05$.

Linear form 线性形式: a relationship like $y = Ax^n$ becomes a straight line if you take logs: $\ln y = \ln A + n\ln x$. Plotting $\ln y$ against $\ln x$ gives a line with gradient $n$ and intercept $\ln A$, so you can find the unknown constants.

There are three more functions, each the reciprocal of one you know: the secant 正割 $\sec\theta = \dfrac{1}{\cos\theta}$, the cosecant 余割 $\csc\theta = \dfrac{1}{\sin\theta}$, and the cotangent 余切 $\cot\theta = \dfrac{1}{\tan\theta}$.

You must know these trigonometric identities 三角恒等式 and choose the right one for each problem:

You also use the compound angle 复合角 formulae for $\sin(A \pm B)$, $\cos(A \pm B)$, $\tan(A \pm B)$, the double angle 二倍角 formulae and the R-formula 辅助角公式 $a\sin\theta + b\cos\theta = R\sin(\theta + \alpha)$, where $R = \sqrt{a^2 + b^2}$ and $\tan\alpha = \dfrac{b}{a}$.

Worked example. Solve $2\tan^2\theta + 3\sec\theta = 18$ for $-180^\circ < \theta < 180^\circ$.

Replace $\tan^2\theta$ with $\sec^2\theta - 1$ to get one function:

So $\sec\theta = \tfrac52$ or $\sec\theta = -4$, giving $\cos\theta = \tfrac25$ or $\cos\theta = -\tfrac14$. The solutions are $\theta = \pm 66.4^\circ$ and $\theta = \pm 104.5^\circ$.

Learn these standard derivatives:

For a product or a quotient of two functions, use:

• the product rule 乘积法则: $(uv)' = u'v + uv'$;
• the quotient rule 商法则: $\left(\dfrac{u}{v}\right)' = \dfrac{u'v - uv'}{v^2}$.

When a curve is given by parametric equations 参数方程 $x = x(t)$, $y = y(t)$, the gradient is $\dfrac{dy}{dx} = \dfrac{dy/dt}{dx/dt}$. When $y$ is defined implicitly 隐式 (not made the subject), differentiate every term with respect to $x$, using the chain rule on the $y$ terms, then solve for $\dfrac{dy}{dx}$.

Worked example. Given $y = 6x\cos(x^2 + 1)$, find $\dfrac{dy}{dx}$.

Use the product rule with $u = 6x$ and $v = \cos(x^2 + 1)$ (and the chain rule for $v$):

Integration is reverse differentiation — reverse each new derivative; harder integrals may need integration by substitution 换元积分 (developed in Pure 3). For a linear inside function $(ax + b)$:

To integrate a power of $\sin$ or $\cos$, first use an identity to remove the power. When you cannot integrate exactly, the trapezium rule 梯形法则 estimates a definite integral:

Worked example. Find $\displaystyle\int 6\sin^2 x\,dx$.

Use $\sin^2 x = \tfrac12(1 - \cos 2x)$:

Many equations cannot be solved exactly. Two ideas help you find a root 根 (a solution).

• Sign change 变号: if $f(a)$ and $f(b)$ have opposite signs (and the graph has no break between them), a root lies between $a$ and $b$.
• Iteration 迭代: rearrange the equation into the form $x = F(x)$, then use the iterative formula 迭代公式 $x_{n+1} = F(x_n)$. Start from a first guess $x_0$ and repeat. If the values are convergent they settle down and converge 收敛 to a root. Keep going until the answer is steady to the accuracy asked for.

Worked example. A root $\beta$ of an equation satisfies $x = \sqrt[3]{-2x - 4.5}$, and $-1.4 < \beta < -1.0$. Use the iteration $x_{n+1} = \sqrt[3]{-2x_n - 4.5}$ with $x_0 = -1.2$.

The values settle near $-1.26$, so $\beta = -1.26$ (3 s.f.).

• Use the laws of logarithms to solve equations; remember $\ln$ and $e^x$ are inverses.
• For numerical methods, show a sign change to locate a root, set out the iteration clearly, and give the answer to the stated accuracy.
• Learn the chain, product and quotient rules and identify which the function needs.
• Solve modulus equations $|f(x)| = g(x)$ by considering both the positive and negative cases, and sketch to check.

A force 力 is a push or a pull. It is a vector, so it has size and direction. Because it is a vector, you can split a force into components 分量 (usually horizontal and vertical), and you can add several forces into one resultant 合力.

A particle is in equilibrium 平衡 when the forces are balanced: the vector sum of the forces is zero. In practice this means the components in any direction add to zero.

Friction

When two surfaces touch, the contact force 接触力 between them has two parts: the normal reaction 法向反作用力 $R$, at right angles to the surface, and the friction 摩擦力 $F$, along the surface, which opposes sliding. A "smooth" surface is a model with no friction.

Friction can only grow up to a maximum. At that maximum the body is in limiting equilibrium 极限平衡, about to slip, and the friction is limiting friction 最大静摩擦力. The maximum is set by the coefficient of friction 摩擦系数 $\mu$:

By Newton's third law 牛顿第三定律, the two surfaces push on each other with equal and opposite forces.

Worked example. A block of weight $20\text{ N}$ rests on a rough horizontal table with coefficient of friction $\mu = 0.4$. Find the largest horizontal force that can be applied before the block slides.

The table's normal reaction balances the weight, so $R = 20\text{ N}$. The block is on the point of slipping when friction reaches its maximum $F = \mu R = 0.4 \times 20 = 8\text{ N}$. In equilibrium the applied force equals the friction, so the largest force it can resist is $8\text{ N}$.

Distance 距离 and speed 速率 are scalars (size only). Displacement 位移, velocity 速度 and acceleration 加速度 are vectors (size and direction).

On a velocity-time graph 速度时间图, the area under the graph is the displacement and the gradient is the acceleration (a negative acceleration is a deceleration 减速度). On a displacement-time graph, the gradient is the velocity. More generally, differentiate with respect to time to go from displacement to velocity to acceleration, and integrate to go back.

For motion with constant acceleration 匀加速, use these formulae (the "suvat" equations):

Worked example. A car starts from rest and accelerates at $2.5\ \text{m s}^{-2}$ for $4\ \text{s}$. Find its speed and the distance travelled.

The linear momentum 动量 of a body is $\text{mass} \times \text{velocity}$. It is a vector. In a direct collision of two bodies, the total momentum is unchanged. This is the conservation of linear momentum 动量守恒:

Worked example. A body of mass $2\ \text{kg}$ moving at $3\ \text{m s}^{-1}$ hits a stationary body of mass $1\ \text{kg}$, and they stick together. Find their common speed afterwards.

Newton's laws of motion 牛顿运动定律 connect force and acceleration. The key one is: resultant force $=$ mass 质量 $\times$ acceleration,

The weight 重力 of a body is the force of gravity on it: $W = mg$. Forces in a problem may include weight, friction, tension 张力 in a string, the thrust 推力 (push) in a rod, and air resistance 空气阻力.

For motion on an inclined plane 斜面, split each force into a part along the slope and a part at right angles to it, then apply $F = ma$ along the slope. For connected particles 连接质点 (joined by a string), apply $F = ma$ to each body, or to the whole system.

Worked example. A block of mass $12\ \text{kg}$ is pulled up a rough plane by a rope parallel to the slope. The plane is at $20^\circ$ to the horizontal, the coefficient of friction is $0.4$, and the acceleration is $2\ \text{m s}^{-2}$. Find the tension in the rope.

The normal reaction is $R = mg\cos 20^\circ = 120\cos 20^\circ = 112.8\ \text{N}$, so the friction is $F = \mu R = 0.4 \times 112.8 = 45.1\ \text{N}$. Along the slope, $T - mg\sin 20^\circ - F = ma$:

The work done 功 by a constant force is the scalar product of force and displacement — the force times the distance moved in the direction of the force: $W = Fd\cos\theta$, where $\theta$ is the angle between the force and the motion. Work is measured in joules (J).

Energy comes in forms you can calculate:

• Kinetic energy 动能 (energy of movement): $\text{KE} = \tfrac12 mv^2$.
• Gravitational potential energy 重力势能 (energy of height): $\text{PE} = mgh$.

The work done by the outside forces equals the change in the total energy. When no friction acts, the total energy stays the same — the conservation of energy 能量守恒.

Power 功率 is the rate of doing work. For a force pulling in the direction of motion, $P = Fv$ (power $=$ force $\times$ velocity). Power is measured in watts (W).

Worked example. A car engine works at $12\ \text{kW}$ while the car moves at $20\ \text{m s}^{-1}$ on a level road. Find the driving force.

• Draw a clear force diagram and resolve into perpendicular components; for equilibrium, each direction sums to zero.
• Use SUVAT only for constant acceleration and keep a consistent positive direction.
• Apply $F = ma$ along the direction of motion, including friction ($F = \mu R$) on a rough surface.
• State your assumptions (light inextensible string, smooth pulley, particle) — they are often worth a mark.