밀폐된 기체 용기를 가열하면 압력이 변합니다. 켈빈 온도를 사용하지 않으면 켤스도 비율로는 압력 변화를 예측할 수 없으며, 이는 기체 모델이 절대 온도를 사용하기 때문입니다.
예측을 먼저 제시하십시오. 비교하고자 하는 양이나 특성을 명시한 뒤, 두 설명을 구별할 수 있는 증거가 무엇인지 결정하십시오.
모델을 구축하시오
기체 모델에서 입자는 무작위로 움직이며 압력은 벽에서의 운동량 전달에서 발생합니다. 이상 기체 방정식은 압력, 부피, 물质量和 절대 온도를 연결합니다.
절대 온도: 켈빈 눈금상의 온도; 이상 기체: 특정 단순화 가정이 적용된 기체 모델.
이를 검증할 수 있는 증거를 선택하시오
양과 부피가 일정할 때, 압력은 켈빈 온도에 비례한다. 온도와 양이 일정할 때, 압력은 부피에 반비례한다. 관계식을 선택하기 전에 어떤 물량이 고정되어 있는지 명시해야 한다.
교사가 설정한 온도 범위와 압력 제한이 있는 인증 장비를 사용하십시오. 열적 평형이 도달할 때까지 기다린 후 켈빈 온도에 따른 압력을 기록하십시오. 임의로 만든 밀폐 용기를 가열해서는 안 됩니다.
알려진 양으로부터 시작하시오
알려진 값과 그 단위를 명시하십시오. 이 사례에 가정이 부합하는 식을 선택한 후 대입하기前面으로 변형하십시오.
주어진 값: 부피와 양이 일정할 때 100 K에서 압력이 300 kPa이다. 330 K에서 p2/p1=T2/T1이다. p2=p1 T2/T1=100×330/300=110 kPa이다. 30 °C 상승은 30 K의 변화이지만, 온도 비율을 구할 때는 반드시 켈빈 온도를 사용해야 한다.
예시:
부피가 일정할 때, 압력은 120 kPa이고 온도는 300 K입니다. 350 K에서의 압력을 구하십시오. 동일한 순서를 따르십시오: 주어진 값 → 모델 → 관계식 → 대입 → 단위 및 해석.
결론과 그 한계를 확인하시오
이상 기체는 유효성 조건을 갖는 모델입니다. 켈빈 0도(절대 영도)가 분자 운동의 정지 상태가 아니며, 내부 에너지는 압력만으로 결정되지 않습니다.
원래 관찰로 돌아가십시오. 결과가 어떤 것을 지지하며, 어떤 조건을 전제로 하며, 경쟁 설명을 검증하는 방법 하나를 제시하십시오.
경고:
기체 압력 비는 항상 섭씨 온도를 사용할 수 있다. 이 주장은 틀렸다: 이상 기체는 유효성 조건을 가진 모델이다. 섭씨 0도는 분자 운동의 0이 아니며, 내부 에너지는 압력만으로 결정되지 않는다.
핵심:
기체 모델과 절대 온도: 양과 부피가 일정할 때 압력은 켈빈 온도에 비례한다. 온도와 양이 일정할 때 압력은 부피에 반비례한다. 관계식을 선택하기 전에 어떤 물량이 일정한지 명시하라.
지원 SL 집중. 첫 평가 2025; 현재 초안 획득 완료; 전체 화학 가이드 미획득. Remaining guide, assessment and practical requirements retain their recorded holds.
사전 요구사항: 명시된 양과 단위를 읽고, 산술 및 아래 모델 조건을 사용하십시오. 각 수업은 독립적 이전 전에 자체 방법을 개발합니다.
이는 실제 측정값이나 완성된 평가된 학습자 조사가 아닌, 원작 또는 명시적으로 허구적인 교육 예시입니다.
2.2
입자, 결합 및 거시적 성질
이 관측을 설명할 수 있는 것은 무엇인가?
소금 결정은 용해되면 전기를 전도하지만 고체 상태에서는 전도하지 않습니다. 이온은 두 상태 모두에 존재하지만, 그들의 이동 능력은 달라집니다.
예측을 먼저 제시하십시오. 비교하고자 하는 양이나 특성을 명시한 뒤, 두 설명을 구별할 수 있는 증거가 무엇인지 결정하십시오.
모델을 구축하시오
이온 결합은 서로 다른 전하를 가진 이온 간의 정전기적 인력입니다. 공유 결합은 공유 전자 쌍을 포함합니다. 금속 결합은 양이온과 비국소화 전자 사이의 인력을 포함합니다.
이온 결합(ionic bond): 서로 반대 전하를 가진 이온 간의 인력; 비국소화 전자(delocalized electron): 하나의 원자나 결합에 국한되지 않는 전자.
이를 검증할 수 있는 증거를 선택하시오
거시적 성질을 설명하려면 구조, 입자, 힘, 그리고 이동 가능한 전하 운반체를 명시하십시오. 단순 분자 물질은 분자 내부에 강한 공유 결합을 가질 수 있지만, 분자 간에는 약한 인력을 가질 수 있습니다.
녹점, 고체 및 용융 상태에서의 전기 전도성, 용해도와 같은 증거를 사용하여 물질을 비교하십시오. 하나의 성질로만 구조를 증명하기는 어렵으므로, 증거의 패턴을 사용하십시오.
알려진 양으로부터 시작하시오
알려진 값과 그 단위를 명시하십시오. 이 사례에 가정이 부합하는 식을 선택한 후 대입하기前面으로 변형하십시오.
주어진 정보: 한 원소의 원자 번호는 12이고 질량 수는 24입니다. 양성자 수 = 12; 중성자 수 = 질량 수 - 원자 번호 = 24 - 12 = 12. 2+ 이온은 전자 수 = 12 - 2 = 10입니다. 전하 변화는 전자 수만 바꾸며 nucleus는 변하지 않습니다.
예시:
한 원자의 원자 번호가 17이고 질량수가 35입니다. 중성자의 수를 구하십시오. 동일한 순서를 따르십시오:已知 quantities → 모델 → 관계식 → 대입 → 단위 및 해석.
결론과 그 한계를 확인하시오
단순 분자 물질을 녹이는 것은 일반적으로 분자 간 인력을 극복하는 것이며, 각 분자 내의 모든 공유 결합을 끊을 필요는 없습니다.
원래 관찰로 돌아가십시오. 결과가 어떤 것을 지지하며, 어떤 조건을 전제로 하며, 경쟁 설명을 검증하는 방법 하나를 제시하십시오.
경고:
모든 공유 결합 물질은 낮은 녹점을 가집니다. 이 주장은 틀렸습니다: 단순 분자 물질을 녹이는 것은 일반적으로 분자 간 인력을 극복하는 것이며, 각 분자 내의 모든 공유 결합을 끊을 필요는 없습니다.
핵심:
입자, 결합 및 거시적 성질: 거시적 성질을 설명하려면 구조, 입자, 힘, 그리고 이동 가능한 전하 운반체를 명시하십시오. 단순 분자 물질은 분자 내부에 강한 공유 결합을 가질 수 있지만, 분자 간에는 약한 인력을 가질 수 있습니다.
Supported SL core focus. First assessment 2025; current brief acquired; full Chemistry guide not acquired. Remaining guide, assessment and practical requirements retain their recorded holds.
Prerequisites: atomic number and the structure of the atom from Structure 1.2, arithmetic with powers of ten, and the wave relation c = fλ. Each lesson develops its own method before independent transfer.
These are original or explicitly fictional teaching examples, not actual measurements or completed assessed learner investigations.
3.2
Electron configurations 电子排布
English
What would explain this observation?
A hydrogen discharge tube glows, and a prism splits the light into a few exact coloured lines — not a continuous rainbow. Why only those colours?
Start with a prediction. State the quantities or features you would compare, then decide what evidence could distinguish two explanations.
Build the model
An electron in an atom can only occupy fixed energy levels 能级. When it falls from a higher level to a lower one, it emits one photon whose energy equals the gap: E₂ − E₁ = hf. A line emission spectrum 发射光谱 is the set of these exact photon energies, so each element shows its own pattern of lines.
Electrons fill the levels in a fixed order from lowest energy: 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p. An orbital 轨道 holds at most two electrons with opposite spins. The electron configuration lists the occupied sublevels, for example iron: 1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p⁶ 4s² 3d⁶, written compactly as [Ar] 4s² 3d⁶.
energy level: A fixed energy an electron may have in an atom; orbital: A region holding at most two electrons with opposite spins; emission spectrum: The exact set of light frequencies an element emits.
Choose evidence that can test it
The emission lines of hydrogen fall at exact frequencies predicted by the level gaps. If electrons could have any energy, the spectrum would be continuous — the observed separate lines are the evidence for fixed levels.
The first ionisation energies of successive elements rise in steps and fall at the start of each new shell, matching the order in which sublevels fill. Compare a measured spectrum or ionisation pattern with the configuration model before accepting an explanation.
Work from known quantities
State the known values and their units. Choose the relation because its assumptions fit this case, then rearrange before substitution.
Known: the red Balmer line of hydrogen has wavelength λ = 656 nm = 656 × 10⁻⁹ m; c = 3.00 × 10⁸ m/s and h = 6.63 × 10⁻³⁴ J s. The photon energy equals the level gap: E = hf and f = c/λ, so E = hc/λ. Substitution: E = (6.63 × 10⁻³⁴ × 3.00 × 10⁸)/(656 × 10⁻⁹) = 3.03 × 10⁻¹⁹ J. This is the energy gap between the n = 3 and n = 2 levels.
Example:
The ultraviolet line of hydrogen has λ = 122 nm. Find the photon energy using the same sequence: known quantities → model → relation → substitution → unit and interpretation. (Answer: E = 6.63 × 10⁻³⁴ × 3.00 × 10⁸ / (122 × 10⁻⁹) = 1.63 × 10⁻¹⁸ J — about five times the red line's energy, because it spans the larger gap down to n = 1.)
Check the conclusion and its limits
The filling order 4s before 3d is an empirical energy order for NEUTRAL atoms; when atoms lose electrons to form ions, the 4s electrons leave first (iron forms Fe²⁺ as [Ar] 3d⁶, not [Ar] 4s² 3d⁴). The simple order also has noted exceptions such as chromium [Ar] 4s¹ 3d⁵.
Return to the original observation. Explain what the result supports, which conditions it assumes, and one way to test a competing explanation.
Warn:
Electrons in an atom can occupy any energy between the shells. This claim is false: the separate lines of an emission spectrum appear only because electrons fall between fixed energy levels; a continuum of allowed energies would give a continuous spectrum, which is not observed.
Key:
Electron configurations: electrons occupy fixed energy levels, and the photon energy of each emission line equals the gap between two levels, E = hc/λ. Sublevels fill in the order 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4p, with at most two opposite-spin electrons per orbital.
Supported SL core focus. First assessment 2025; current brief acquired; full Chemistry guide not acquired. Remaining guide, assessment and practical requirements retain their recorded holds.
Prerequisites: the ionic, covalent and metallic models from Structure 2.1–2.3, and density from earlier physical science. Each lesson develops its own method before independent transfer.
These are original or explicitly fictional teaching examples, not actual measurements or completed assessed learner investigations.
9.2
From models to materials 材料
English
What would explain this observation?
A copper wire bends without breaking and carries current; a ceramic plate snaps but never conducts; a plastic bag stretches and melts over a candle. Why do these materials behave so differently?
Start with a prediction. State the quantities or features you would compare, then decide what evidence could distinguish two explanations.
Build the model
The bonding model predicts the bulk properties 宏观性能: a metallic material 金属材料 has positive ions in a sea of delocalised electrons, so it conducts and is malleable. An ionic lattice is hard but brittle and conducts only when molten or dissolved. A giant covalent network has a very high melting point. Simple molecular substances and polymers melt low, and polymer chains can slide and flex.
A composite 复合材料 combines materials so the product has properties neither part has alone, such as carbon fibres in a resin. Choosing a material means matching its model-derived properties to a design requirement, then checking measurable quantities such as strength, density and conductivity.
bulk property: A measurable property of a material sample, such as strength or conductivity; composite: A material made of two or more components whose combined properties exceed the parts; metallic material: A material of metal ions held by delocalised electrons.
Choose evidence that can test it
Test the model by measuring what it predicts: bend and stretch samples of a metal, an ionic solid and a polymer under the same conditions and compare conductivity in solid and molten states where the school permits. The model is supported only if the observed properties match the bonding in the structure.
Compare candidate materials for one application using measured properties, not names: a bicycle frame needs high strength per unit mass, a window needs transparency and scratch resistance.
Work from known quantities
State the known values and their units. Choose the relation because its assumptions fit this case, then rearrange before substitution.
Known: an aluminium alloy has strength 300 MPa and density 2.7 g/cm³; a steel has strength 500 MPa and density 7.8 g/cm³. The design needs strength per unit mass, so compute the ratio: alloy 300/2.7 ≈ 111 MPa per g/cm³; steel 500/7.8 ≈ 64 MPa per g/cm³. The alloy gives more strength for the same mass, so it suits a light frame even though the steel is stronger in absolute terms.
Example:
A carbon-fibre composite has strength 1,100 MPa at density 1.4 g/cm³. Find its strength-to-density ratio and compare it with the alloy above, using the same sequence: known quantities → model → relation → substitution → unit and interpretation. (Answer: 1,100/1.4 ≈ 786 MPa per g/cm³ — about seven times the alloy, which is why racing frames use it despite the cost.)
Check the conclusion and its limits
A single ratio never settles a design choice: toughness, cost, corrosion resistance, manufacturability and end-of-life all matter. Bonding models describe ideal structures; real materials contain defects that lower measured strength below the model's prediction.
Return to the original observation. Explain what the result supports, which conditions it assumes, and one way to test a competing explanation.
Warn:
The strongest material in absolute terms is always the best choice for a design. This claim is false: the best choice depends on the requirement — per unit mass the weaker-looking alloy beats the steel, and other criteria such as cost and corrosion can outweigh strength entirely.
Key:
From models to materials: bonding models predict bulk properties — metallic conducts and bends, ionic is hard and brittle, giant covalent resists heat, molecular and polymer materials melt low and flex. Material selection compares measured properties against a stated requirement, often as a ratio such as strength per density.
Supported SL core focus. First assessment 2025; current brief acquired; full Chemistry guide not acquired. Remaining guide, assessment and practical requirements retain their recorded holds.
Prerequisites: electron configurations from Structure 1.3 and the nuclear-atom model from Structure 1.2. Each lesson develops its own method before independent transfer.
These are original or explicitly fictional teaching examples, not actual measurements or completed assessed learner investigations.
10.2
The periodic table: classification of elements 元素周期表
English
What would explain this observation?
Lithium, sodium and potassium all fizz with water — and each more violently than the last. Why do these elements behave like a family?
Start with a prediction. State the quantities or features you would compare, then decide what evidence could distinguish two explanations.
Build the model
Elements are ordered by atomic number. A vertical group 族 contains atoms with the same number of outer electrons, so they react alike. A horizontal period 周期 fills one more electron shell across its length. The block 区 (s, p, d or f) names which sublevel is being filled.
Across a period the first ionisation energy 第一电离能 rises overall, because the nuclear charge grows at almost unchanged shielding; it dips where a new sublevel starts (B after Be) and where a p orbital first holds a paired electron (O after N). Down a group it falls as the outer electron is farther away and more shielded.
group: A column of the periodic table whose atoms share an outer-electron count; period: A row of the table filling one electron shell; block: The region of the table named by the sublevel being filled; first ionisation energy: The energy needed to remove one electron from each atom in one mole of gaseous atoms.
Choose evidence that can test it
Compare the reactions of two or more members of one group under the same conditions, such as lithium and potassium with cold water: same products, different vigour — evidence that shared outer configuration drives the chemistry.
Plot measured first ionisation energies across a period. The model predicts the rise and the two dips at the sublevel boundary and the first paired p electron; check whether the data show exactly those dips.
Work from known quantities
State the known values and their units. Choose the relation because its assumptions fit this case, then rearrange before substitution.
Known: the first ionisation energies of magnesium and aluminium are 738 and 578 kJ/mol. The trend rises across a period, yet Al lies below Mg. The electron removed from aluminium is in 3p, while magnesium loses from 3s: the 3p electron is higher in energy and better shielded, so less energy is needed — a difference of 738 − 578 = 160 kJ/mol.
Example:
The first ionisation energies of sodium and magnesium are 496 and 738 kJ/mol. Find the difference and explain its direction using the same sequence: known quantities → model → relation → substitution → unit and interpretation. (Answer: 738 − 496 = 242 kJ/mol higher for magnesium; the 3s electron in Mg feels one more proton at nearly the same shielding, so it is held more tightly.)
Check the conclusion and its limits
The block model explains the MAIN trends; transition-metal chemistry has additional d-orbital detail beyond this classification lesson, and ionisation values are measured for gaseous atoms, not for reacting solids.
Return to the original observation. Explain what the result supports, which conditions it assumes, and one way to test a competing explanation.
Warn:
Elements in the same group react alike because they have the same number of electrons. This claim is false: they share the number of OUTER electrons — sodium has 11 electrons in total and potassium 19, yet both react as Group 1 metals because each has one outer electron.
Key:
The periodic table: classification of elements: group = shared outer-electron count and similar reactions; period = a filling shell; block = the sublevel being filled. Ionisation energy rises across a period with dips at the sublevel boundary and the first paired p electron, and falls down a group.
Supported SL core focus. First assessment 2025; current brief acquired; full Chemistry guide not acquired. Remaining guide, assessment and practical requirements retain their recorded holds.
Prerequisites: enthalpy change and calorimetry from Reactivity 1.1, balancing equations, and arithmetic with signed quantities. Each lesson develops its own method before independent transfer.
These are original or explicitly fictional teaching examples, not actual measurements or completed assessed learner investigations.
13.2
Energy cycles in reactions 能量循环
English
What would explain this observation?
Some enthalpy changes cannot be measured directly: carbon and hydrogen will not simply combine into methane in a calorimeter. How can we still know the enthalpy change of that reaction?
Start with a prediction. State the quantities or features you would compare, then decide what evidence could distinguish two explanations.
Build the model
Hess's law 盖斯定律: the total enthalpy change of a reaction is the same whatever route is taken, because energy is conserved. An energy cycle links the direct route to an indirect route through shared substances, so the unknown change is found from measurable ones.
With standard enthalpy of formation 标准生成焓 data the rule is ΔH = ΣΔHf(products) − ΣΔHf(reactants). With standard enthalpy of combustion 标准燃烧焓 data the cycle runs through the combustion products: ΔH = ΣΔHc(reactants) − ΣΔHc(products). Elements in their standard states have ΔHf = 0.
energy cycle: A diagram linking two routes between the same start and end points; standard enthalpy of formation: The enthalpy change when one mole of a compound forms from its elements under standard conditions; standard enthalpy of combustion: The enthalpy change when one mole burns completely under standard conditions.
Choose evidence that can test it
Measure the enthalpies of combustion of carbon, hydrogen and methane by calorimetry; each is directly measurable. The cycle then predicts the formation enthalpy of methane, and the same method applied to a reaction that CAN be measured directly (such as neutralisation) confirms that route and direct measurement agree within experimental uncertainty.
State the states of every substance and the standard conditions; an enthalpy value without states is incomplete.
Work from known quantities
State the known values and their units. Choose the relation because its assumptions fit this case, then rearrange before substitution.
Known: ΔHc(C) = −394 kJ/mol, ΔHc(H₂) = −286 kJ/mol, ΔHc(CH₄) = −890 kJ/mol. The target is ΔHf for C (s) + 2H₂ (g) → CH₄ (g). By Hess's law along the combustion route: ΔHf = [ΔHc(C) + 2ΔHc(H₂)] − ΔHc(CH₄). Substitution: ΔHf = [−394 + 2 × (−286)] − (−890) = −966 + 890 = −76 kJ/mol. The negative sign means the formation of methane from its elements is exothermic.
Example:
Ethanol burns: C₂H₅OH (l) + 3O₂ (g) → 2CO₂ (g) + 3H₂O (l). Using ΔHf(CO₂) = −394, ΔHf(H₂O) = −286 and ΔHf(C₂H₅OH) = −278 kJ/mol, find ΔHc of ethanol with the same sequence: known quantities → model → relation → substitution → unit and interpretation. (Answer: ΔH = [2 × (−394) + 3 × (−286)] − [−278 + 0] = −1646 + 278 = −1368 kJ/mol; oxygen is an element in its standard state, so its ΔHf is 0.)
Check the conclusion and its limits
Hess's law assumes the routes share the same start and end states and that the tabulated values apply at the stated conditions. Real calorimetry loses heat, so measured values carry uncertainty; the law itself is exact.
Return to the original observation. Explain what the result supports, which conditions it assumes, and one way to test a competing explanation.
Warn:
The enthalpy change of a reaction depends on the route by which the reaction happens. This claim is false: Hess's law follows from the conservation of energy — the total change depends only on the start and end states, so an unmeasurable change can be computed from a measurable indirect route.
Key:
Energy cycles in reactions: ΔH is route-independent. Use ΔH = ΣΔHf(products) − ΣΔHf(reactants) from formation data, or ΔH = ΣΔHc(reactants) − ΣΔHc(products) from combustion data, keeping signs and states explicit.
재사용 가능 용기는 일회용 용기보다 제조 시 더 많은 에너지를 필요로 할 수 있습니다. 환경 영향은 사용 빈도와 폐기 시处理方式에 따라 달라집니다.
예측을 먼저 제시하십시오. 비교하고자 하는 양이나 특성을 명시한 뒤, 두 설명을 구별할 수 있는 증거가 무엇인지 결정하십시오.
모델을 구축하시오
**수명 주기 평가(LCA)**는 원자재, 제조, 운송, 사용 및 수명 종료 과정을 고려합니다. 온실 가스는 적외선 복사를 흡수하고 방출하며, 오염 및 기후 영향은 관련되지만 별개의 문제입니다.
생애 주기 평가: 생산, 사용, 폐기 전 과정을 평가함; 기능 단위: 공정한 비교를 위해 사용되는 공통 서비스 단위.
이를 검증할 수 있는 증거를 선택하시오
제품 간 비교 전 기능 단위를 정의하십시오. Lifetime(수명)과 무관하게 하나의 물체를 다른 것과 비교하는 것보다, 한 리터의 물을 백 번 운반하는 것과 같은 제공된 서비스가 더 공평합니다.
시스템 경계, 에너지원 및 가정 사항을 나열하십시오. 판단을 내리기 전에 수요, 배출량, 폐기물을 각각 비교하십시오.谁的 priorities가 의사결정에 영향을 미치는지, 데이터의 불확실성이 있는 지 설명하십시오.
알려진 양으로부터 시작하시오
알려진 값과 그 단위를 명시하십시오. 이 사례에 가정이 부합하는 식을 선택한 후 대입하기前面으로 변형하십시오.
주어짐: 재사용 가능 품목은 제조 시 1,000 에너지 단위와 사용 시 10가 소요되며, 일회용 품목은 사용 시 60가 소요됩니다. 평형점(Equilibrium)은 1,000 + 10n = 60n인 지점입니다. 이를 정리하면 1,000 = 50n이 되므로, 이 단순화된 모델 하에서 n = 20回の 사용으로 평형점에 도달합니다.
예시:
재사용 가능 품목은 초기에 600 에너지 단위가 소요되고 사용 시 5가 들며, 일회용 품목은 사용 시 35가 듭니다. 회수점(break-even) 사용 횟구를 찾으십시오. 같은 순서를 따르십시오: 주어진 양 → 모델 → 관계 → 대입 → 단위 및 해석.
결론과 그 한계를 확인하시오
회수점 모델은 세척, 운송 및 폐기 가정에 민감합니다. 재활용 가능이라도 실제로 수집되고 재활용된다는 보장은 없습니다.
원래 관찰로 돌아가십시오. 결과가 어떤 것을 지지하며, 어떤 조건을 전제로 하며, 경쟁 설명을 검증하는 방법 하나를 제시하십시오.
경고:
재활용 가능한 제품은 사용 후 항상 재활용됩니다. 이 주장은 틀렸습니다: 회수점 모델은 세척, 운송 및 폐기 가정에 민감하며, 재활용 가능이라고 해서 실제 수집 및 재활용이 보장되는 것은 아닙니다.
핵심:
대기, 자원 및 라이프사이클 결정: 제품 간 비교 전 기능 단위를 정의하십시오. Lifetime(수명)과 무관하게 하나의 물체를 다른 것과 비교하는 것보다, 한 리터의 물을 백 번 운반하는 것과 같은 제공된 서비스가 더 공평합니다.
Supported SL focus. First assessment 2025; current brief acquired; full Chemistry guide not acquired. Remaining guide, assessment and practical requirements retain their recorded holds.
Prerequisites: read the stated quantities and units, use arithmetic and the model conditions below. Each lesson develops its own method before independent transfer.
These are original or explicitly fictional teaching examples, not actual measurements or completed assessed learner investigations.
16.2
Rates, catalysts and reliable endpoints
English
What would explain this observation?
A faster reaction finishes sooner, but it need not make more product. Rate 速率 and final yield answer different questions.
Start with a prediction. State the quantities or features you would compare, then decide what evidence could distinguish two explanations.
Build the model
Reaction rate describes reactant used or product formed per time. Higher temperature increases the fraction of collisions with enough energy. A catalyst provides an alternative pathway with lower activation energy 活化能.
activation energy: The energy barrier for a reaction pathway; rate: Change in a measured quantity per unit time.
Choose evidence that can test it
A product-time graph has a steeper gradient where rate is larger. A tangent estimates instantaneous rate; a secant gives average rate over an interval. The final plateau reflects the total collected product under the stated conditions.
For gas production, check apparatus for leaks, start timing consistently and record volume at regular intervals. Keep concentration, reactant amount and surface area controlled when changing temperature.
Work from known quantities
State the known values and their units. Choose the relation because its assumptions fit this case, then rearrange before substitution.
Known: gas volume increases from 10 to 34 cubic centimetres between 20 and 60 s. Average rate = change in volume/change in time. Rate = (34 - 10)/(60 - 20) = 0.60 cubic centimetres per second. This is not necessarily the instantaneous rate at 40 s.
Example:
A reaction makes 24 cubic centimetres of gas in 40 s. Find average rate. Use the same sequence: known quantities → model → relation → substitution → unit and interpretation.
Check the conclusion and its limits
A catalyst does not change the equilibrium constant at a fixed temperature. A mass-loss method cannot detect all reactions, and losing gas through a leak biases a collection experiment.
Return to the original observation. Explain what the result supports, which conditions it assumes, and one way to test a competing explanation.
Warn:
A faster reaction always produces a larger final amount of product. This claim is false: A catalyst does not change the equilibrium constant at a fixed temperature. A mass-loss method cannot detect all reactions, and losing gas through a leak biases a collection experiment.
Key:
Rates, catalysts and reliable endpoints: A product-time graph has a steeper gradient where rate is larger. A tangent estimates instantaneous rate; a secant gives average rate over an interval. The final plateau reflects the total collected product under the stated conditions.
Supported SL core focus. First assessment 2025; current brief acquired; full Chemistry guide not acquired. Remaining guide, assessment and practical requirements retain their recorded holds.
Prerequisites: chemical equations and reversible reactions from Structure and Reactivity 2, logarithms, and the mole. Each lesson develops its own method before independent transfer.
These are original or explicitly fictional teaching examples, not actual measurements or completed assessed learner investigations.
18.2
Proton transfer reactions 质子转移
English
What would explain this observation?
Two bottles both labelled "0.1 mol/dm³ acid" give very different pH readings: 1.0 and 2.9. Same concentration, different acidity — how?
Start with a prediction. State the quantities or features you would compare, then decide what evidence could distinguish two explanations.
Build the model
In the Brønsted–Lowry model, an acid is a proton donor 质子给体 and a base is a proton acceptor. Every such reaction links a conjugate acid–base pair 共轭酸碱对 differing by exactly one H⁺: NH₃ + H₂O ⇌ NH₄⁺ + OH⁻ pairs NH₃ with NH₄⁺ and H₂O with OH⁻.
A strong acid 强酸 dissociates almost completely in water; a weak acid 弱酸 only partially, so the same concentration gives a different [H⁺]. Water itself ionises slightly: Kw = [H⁺][OH⁻] = 1.0 × 10⁻¹⁴ mol²/dm⁶ at 298 K, and pH = −log[H⁺].
proton donor: A species that gives an H⁺ to another species; conjugate acid–base pair: Two species differing by exactly one proton; strong acid: An acid that dissociates almost completely in water; weak acid: An acid that only partially dissociates in water.
Choose evidence that can test it
Compare equal-concentration solutions: a strong acid conducts better and shows a lower pH than a weak acid of the same concentration, because more of its molecules have dissociated. Measure pH with a calibrated meter, not by estimating from the label.
Adding the conjugate base of a weak acid shifts its equilibrium toward the undissociated form — evidence that the dissociation is a genuine equilibrium, not a one-way reaction.
Work from known quantities
State the known values and their units. Choose the relation because its assumptions fit this case, then rearrange before substitution.
Known: HCl is a strong acid at 0.05 mol/dm³, so [H⁺] = 0.05 mol/dm³. pH = −log[H⁺]. Substitution: pH = −log(0.05) = 1.30. For 0.01 mol/dm³ NaOH, a strong base, [OH⁻] = 0.01; using Kw, [H⁺] = Kw/[OH⁻] = 1.0 × 10⁻¹⁴ / 0.01 = 1.0 × 10⁻¹², so pH = 12.0.
Example:
A strong-acid solution has [H⁺] = 2.5 × 10⁻⁴ mol/dm³. Find its pH using the same sequence: known quantities → model → relation → substitution → unit and interpretation. (Answer: pH = −log(2.5 × 10⁻⁴) = 3.60. pH is dimensionless; state the input concentration with its unit.)
Check the conclusion and its limits
pH = −log[H⁺] in this form assumes dilute solutions where concentration approximates activity; at high concentration the approximation weakens. Kw = 1.0 × 10⁻¹⁴ holds at 298 K and changes with temperature.
Return to the original observation. Explain what the result supports, which conditions it assumes, and one way to test a competing explanation.
Warn:
A strong acid is the same thing as a concentrated acid. This claim is false: strength is the degree of dissociation and concentration is the amount per volume; a concentrated weak acid and a dilute strong acid both exist.
Key:
Proton transfer reactions: acids donate protons and bases accept them; every transfer links a conjugate pair differing by one H⁺. Strength (degree of dissociation) is not concentration, and pH = −log[H⁺] with Kw = [H⁺][OH⁻].
Supported SL core focus. First assessment 2025; current brief acquired; full Chemistry guide not acquired. Remaining guide, assessment and practical requirements retain their recorded holds.
Prerequisites: covalent bonding from Structure 2.2 and alkane structure from Structure 3.2. Each lesson develops its own method before independent transfer.
These are original or explicitly fictional teaching examples, not actual measurements or completed assessed learner investigations.
20.2
Electron sharing reactions 自由基取代
English
What would explain this observation?
Methane and chlorine are mixed in the dark and nothing happens; the same mixture in sunlight reacts at once, and the product is never pure chloromethane — it always carries further-substituted molecules. Why?
Start with a prediction. State the quantities or features you would compare, then decide what evidence could distinguish two explanations.
Build the model
A covalent bond can break by homolytic fission 均裂: the shared pair splits so each atom keeps one electron, forming two free radicals 自由基 — atoms or groups with an unpaired electron, written with a dot, such as Cl•. A single-barbed (fishhook) arrow shows ONE electron moving.
Radical substitution runs as a chain: initiation 引发 (UV light splits Cl₂ into two Cl•), propagation 链增长 (a radical makes a product and another radical: CH₄ + Cl• → •CH₃ + HCl, then •CH₃ + Cl₂ → CH₃Cl + Cl•), and termination 终止 (two radicals join, ending the chain).
homolytic fission: Bond breaking that gives each atom one electron of the shared pair; free radical: A species with an unpaired electron, highly reactive; initiation: The step that first produces radicals; propagation: A chain step consuming one radical and producing another; termination: A step removing radicals by joining two of them.
Choose evidence that can test it
The reaction needs UV light or heat to start but then continues on its own — evidence for a chain in which each step regenerates a radical. Trace amounts of ethane among the products show that two •CH₃ radicals joined in a termination step.
A mixture of CH₃Cl, CH₂Cl₂, CHCl₃ and CCl₄ forms because the product still has C–H bonds open to further propagation; single-substitution purity is evidence against a controlled, non-chain route.
Work from known quantities
State the known values and their units. Choose the relation because its assumptions fit this case, then rearrange before substitution.
Known: the bond enthalpies are Cl–Cl 242 kJ/mol and C–H 413 kJ/mol. Bond breaking is endothermic, so the weaker bond breaks first. Comparing the two: 413 − 242 = 171 kJ/mol less energy breaks Cl–Cl, which is why UV initiates the chain by splitting chlorine rather than methane.
Example:
The H–Cl bond enthalpy is 431 kJ/mol and the C–Cl bond in CH₃Cl is 339 kJ/mol. For the propagation step CH₄ + Cl• → •CH₃ + HCl, estimate the energy change using the same sequence: known quantities → model → relation → substitution → unit and interpretation. (Answer: break C–H (+413), form H–Cl (−431): ΔH ≈ 413 − 431 = −18 kJ/mol — slightly exothermic, so the step proceeds readily once radicals exist.)
Check the conclusion and its limits
Bond enthalpies are averages measured over many compounds, so an estimate from them is approximate, not exact. The chain model for this reaction explains the UV start and the product mixture; it does not describe polar reagents, where heterolytic (electron-PAIR) mechanisms apply instead — the next lesson's model.
Return to the original observation. Explain what the result supports, which conditions it assumes, and one way to test a competing explanation.
Warn:
In a radical substitution, every chlorine atom ends up substituted onto a methane molecule. This claim is false: termination joins radicals with each other (Cl• + Cl• → Cl₂, or two •CH₃ → C₂H₆), and propagation continues substituting the products, so the outcome is always a mixture.
Key:
Electron sharing reactions: homolytic fission splits a shared pair one electron each way, giving radicals; fishhook arrows track single electrons. Radical substitution chains through initiation, propagation and termination, which explains the UV trigger and the mixture of products.
Supported SL core focus. First assessment 2025; current brief acquired; full Chemistry guide not acquired. Remaining guide, assessment and practical requirements retain their recorded holds.
Prerequisites: covalent bonding and polarity from Structure 2.2, alkenes and halogenoalkanes from Structure 3.2, and radical (electron-sharing) mechanisms from Reactivity 3.3. Each lesson develops its own method before independent transfer.
These are original or explicitly fictional teaching examples, not actual measurements or completed assessed learner investigations.
21.2
Electron-pair sharing reactions 亲核取代
English
What would explain this observation?
Bromoethane shaken with warm sodium hydroxide solution turns into ethanol, while the same alkane skeleton with no C–Br bond ignores the hydroxide completely. What does the C–Br bond make possible?
Start with a prediction. State the quantities or features you would compare, then decide what evidence could distinguish two explanations.
Build the model
A covalent bond can also break by heterolytic fission 异裂: BOTH electrons of the shared pair move to one atom, forming ions. A double-barbed curly arrow shows an electron PAIR moving.
A nucleophile 亲核试剂 is an electron-pair donor (OH⁻, CN⁻, NH₃) that attacks a δ+ carbon. An electrophile 亲电试剂 is an electron-pair acceptor (Br₂, H⁺) that accepts a pair from an electron-rich region such as a C=C double bond. In the substitution of bromoethane, OH⁻ donates its pair to the δ+ carbon while Br⁻ leaves with the bonding pair: CH₃CH₂Br + OH⁻ → CH₃CH₂OH + Br⁻.
heterolytic fission: Bond breaking where one atom takes both shared electrons; nucleophile: An electron-pair donor attracted to a positive or δ+ centre; electrophile: An electron-pair acceptor attracted to an electron-rich region.
Choose evidence that can test it
The reaction rate depends on the concentrations of BOTH bromoethane and hydroxide, supporting a mechanism in which both meet in the key step. Bromide ions appear in solution as the alcohol forms, matching the leaving-group prediction.
Bromine water loses its orange colour with an alkene but not with the corresponding alkane — evidence that the electron-rich C=C is what attracts the electrophile.
Work from known quantities
State the known values and their units. Choose the relation because its assumptions fit this case, then rearrange before substitution.
Known: Mr(CH₃CH₂OH) = 46; Mr(CH₃CH₂Br) = 109; Mr(OH⁻) = 17. Atom economy measures how much reactant mass ends in the desired product: atom economy = Mr(desired product) / ΣMr(all reactants) × 100%. Substitution: 46/(109 + 17) × 100% = 46/126 × 100% = 36.5%. Substitution reactions have low atom economy because the leaving group carries mass away.
Example:
Chloroethane has Mr = 64.5. Find the atom economy of CH₃CH₂Cl + OH⁻ → CH₃CH₂OH + Cl⁻ using the same sequence: known quantities → model → relation → substitution → unit and interpretation. (Answer: 46/(64.5 + 17) × 100% = 46/81.5 × 100% = 56.4% — a lighter leaving group raises the atom economy, though it is still far below an addition reaction's 100%.)
Check the conclusion and its limits
The arrow-pushing model shows electron flow in the key step; real rates also depend on the solvent and temperature, which this scheme does not capture. Atom economy compares routes on paper; a full process evaluation needs yield, energy and safety data too.
Return to the original observation. Explain what the result supports, which conditions it assumes, and one way to test a competing explanation.
Warn:
A nucleophile is a negative ion, so any negative ion is a nucleophile and any positive species is an electrophile. This claim is false: the definition is about electron-PAIR donation — neutral NH₃ is a nucleophile because it carries a lone pair, and Br⁻ is a leaving group, not an attacking nucleophile, in this substitution.
Key:
Electron-pair sharing reactions: heterolytic fission moves both shared electrons to one atom; double-barbed arrows track electron pairs. Nucleophiles donate pairs to δ+ centres and electrophiles accept pairs from electron-rich regions; substitution and addition mechanisms follow from that flow.
지원 SL 집중. 첫 평가 2025; 현재 초안 획득 완료; 전체 화학 가이드 미획득. Remaining guide, assessment and practical requirements retain their recorded holds.
사전 요구사항: 명시된 양과 단위를 읽고, 산술 및 아래 모델 조건을 사용하십시오. 각 수업은 독립적 이전 전에 자체 방법을 개발합니다.
이는 실제 측정값이나 완성된 평가된 학습자 조사가 아닌, 원작 또는 명시적으로 허구적인 교육 예시입니다.
22.2
불확도, 기울기 및 모델 검증
이 관측을 설명할 수 있는 것은 무엇인가?
모든 데이터 포인트 근처를 지나는 직선은 유용하지만, 그 기울기(gradiant)는 여전히 불확실할 수 있습니다. 그래프는 측정 범위 내에서 모델에 대한 증거가 됩니다.
예측을 먼저 제시하십시오. 비교하고자 하는 양이나 특성을 명시한 뒤, 두 설명을 구별할 수 있는 증거가 무엇인지 결정하십시오.
모델을 구축하시오
우연적 변동(random variation)은 반복 측정이 서로 다르게 나타나게 합니다. 계통적 오차(systematic error) 는 결과를 일관되게 편향시킵니다. 절대 불확실성(uncertainty) 은 측정값의 단위를 가지며, 상대적 또는 백분율 불확실성은 불확실성을 측정값과 비교하여 표현합니다.
불확실성: 측정 결과에 대한 정량적 제한; 계통오차: 일관적인 측정 편향.
이를 검증할 수 있는 증거를 선택하시오
곱이나 나눗셈의 경우, 최대 불확도를 근사하기 위해 분수 불확도를 더하는 것이 일반적이다. 차이의 경우 절대 불확도를 더한다. 영이 아닌 절편은 오프셋이나 불완전한 모델을 나타낼 수 있다.
축(axis)에 단위를 표시하고 적절한 눈금(scale)을 선택하십시오. 타당한 경우에 불확실성 막대(error bars)를 그리되, 모든 점을 연결하기보다 최선 적합 선(best-fit line)을 그리고 과정这个方法에서 요구할 때 가장 가파르고 가장 완만한 가능한 기울기를 추정하십시오.
알려진 양으로부터 시작하시오
알려진 값과 그 단위를 명시하십시오. 이 사례에 가정이 부합하는 식을 선택한 후 대입하기前面으로 변형하십시오.
주어진 값: 길이 = 50.0 mm, 불확도 1.0 mm이다. 백분율 불확도 = 절대 불확도/값 ×100 = 1.0/50.0×100 = 2.0%이다. 서로 독립적으로 측정된 두 양의 최대 백분율 불확도가 각각 2%와 3%인 경우, 합계된 최대 추정치는 5%이다.
예시:
40 cm 판독값의 절대 불확실성은 1 cm입니다. 백분율 불확실성을 구하십시오. 같은 순서를 따르십시오:已知 quantity → 모델 → 관계식 → 대입 → 단위 및 해석.
결론과 그 한계를 확인하시오
반복 측정값은 평균의 무작위 불확도를 줄이지만 영점 오차를 자동으로 제거하지는 않습니다. 측정 가능한 정밀도보다 더 많은 소수점 자릿수를 표기하지 마십시오.
원래 관찰로 돌아가십시오. 결과가 어떤 것을 지지하며, 어떤 조건을 전제로 하며, 경쟁 설명을 검증하는 방법 하나를 제시하십시오.
경고:
측정을 반복하면 항상 보정 오프셋이 제거됩니다. 이 주장은 틀렸습니다: 반복 측정값은 평균의 무작위 불확도를 줄이지만 영점 오차를 자동으로 제거하지는 않습니다. 측정 가능한 정밀도보다 더 많은 소수점 자릿수를 표기하지 마십시오.
핵심:
불확도, 기울기 및 모델 검증: 곱이나 몫의 경우, 분율 불확도를 더하는 것이 일반적인 최대 불확도 근사법입니다. 차이의 경우 절대 불확도를 더하십시오. 영이 아닌 절편은 오프셋 또는 불완전한 모델을 나타낼 수 있습니다.