1.1 Contextualizing Renaissance and Discovery

Learning Objective Unit 1.A: Explain the context in which the Renaissance and Age of Discovery developed.

• KC-1.1 The rediscovery of works from ancient Greece and Rome and observation of the natural world changed many Europeans’ view of their world.
  • KC-1.1.I A revival of classical texts led to new methods of scholarship and new values in both society and religion.
  • KC-1.1.III The visual arts incorporated the new ideas of the Renaissance and were used to promote personal, political, and religious goals.
• KC-1.3 Europeans explored and settled overseas territories, encountering and interacting with indigenous populations.
  • KC-1.3.I European nations were driven by commercial and religious motives to explore overseas territories and establish colonies.
• KC-1.4 European society and the experiences of everyday life were increasingly shaped by commercial and agricultural capitalism, notwithstanding the continued existence of medieval social and economic structures.
  • KC-1.4.I Economic change produced new social patterns, while traditions of hierarchy and status continued.
  • KC-1.4.II Most Europeans derived their livelihood from agriculture and oriented their lives around the seasons, the village, or the manor, although economic changes began to alter rural production and power.
• KC-1.5 The struggle for sovereignty within and among states resulted in varying degrees of political centralization.
  • KC-1.5.I The new concept of the sovereign state and secular systems of law played a central role in the creation of new political institutions.

1.2 Italian Renaissance

Thematic Focus (CID): Cultural and Intellectual Developments — The creation and transmission of knowledge, including the relationship between traditional sources of authority and the development of differing world views, had significant political, intellectual, economic, cultural, and social effects on European and world societies.

Learning Objective Unit 1.B: Explain how the revival of classical texts contributed to the development of the Renaissance in Italy.

• KC-1.1.I.A Italian Renaissance humanists, including Petrarch, promoted a revival in classical literature and created new philological approaches to ancient texts. Some Renaissance humanists furthered the values of secularism and individualism.

Learning Objective Unit 1.C: Explain the political, intellectual, and cultural effects of the Italian Renaissance.

• KC-1.1.I.B Humanist revival of Greek and Roman texts, spread by the printing press, challenged the institutional power of universities and the Catholic Church. This shifted education away from a primary focus on theological writings toward classical texts and new methods of scientific inquiry.
• KC-1.1.I.C Admiration for Greek and Roman political institutions supported a revival of civic humanist culture in the Italian city-states and produced secular models for individual and political behavior.
• KC-1.1.III.A In the Italian Renaissance, rulers and popes concerned with enhancing their prestige commissioned paintings and architectural works based on classical styles, the developing “naturalism” in the artistic world, and often the newly invented technique of geometric perspective.

Illustrative examples:

• Italian Renaissance humanists:
  • Petrarch (pre-1450)
  • Lorenzo Valla
  • Marsilio Ficino
  • Pico della Mirandola
• Individuals promoting secular models for individual and political behavior:
  • Niccolò Machiavelli
  • Baldassare Castiglione
  • Francesco Guicciardini
• Individuals promoting a revival of Greek and Roman texts:
  • Leonardo Bruni
  • Leon Battista Alberti
  • Niccolò Machiavelli
• Painters and architects:
  • Michelangelo
  • Donatello
  • Raphael
  • Andrea Palladio
  • Leon Battista Alberti
  • Filippo Brunelleschi

1.3 Northern Renaissance

Thematic Focus (CID): Cultural and Intellectual Developments — The creation and transmission of knowledge, including the relationship between traditional sources of authority and the development of differing world views, had significant political, intellectual, economic, cultural, and social effects on European and world societies.

Learning Objective Unit 1.D: Explain how Renaissance ideas were developed, maintained, and changed as the Renaissance spread to northern Europe.

• KC-1.1.III.B The Northern Renaissance retained a more religious focus, which resulted in more human-centered naturalism that considered individuals and everyday life appropriate objects of artistic representation.
• KC-1.2.I.A Christian humanism, embodied in the writings of Erasmus, employed Renaissance learning in the service of religious reform.

Illustrative examples:

• Artists who employed naturalism:
  • Pieter Bruegel the Elder
  • Rembrandt

1.4 Printing

Thematic Focus (TSI): Technological and Scientific Innovation — Scientific and technological innovations have increased efficiency, improved daily life, and shaped human development and interactions, having both intended and unintended consequences.

Learning Objective Unit 1.E: Explain the influence of the printing press on cultural and intellectual developments in modern European history.

• KC-1.1.II The invention of printing promoted the dissemination of new ideas.
  • KC-1.1.II.A The invention of the printing press in the 1450s helped spread the Renaissance beyond Italy and encouraged the growth of vernacular literature, which would eventually contribute to the development of national cultures.

1.6 Technological Advances and the Age of Exploration

Thematic Focus (TSI): Technological and Scientific Innovation — Scientific and technological innovations have increased efficiency, improved daily life, and shaped human development and interactions, having both intended and unintended consequences.

Learning Objective Unit 1.G: Explain the technological factors that facilitated European exploration and expansion from 1450 to 1648. THEMATIC FOCUS Interaction of Europe and the World INT Motivated by a variety of factors, Europe’s interaction with the world led to political, economic, social, and cultural exchanges that influenced both European and non-European societies. LEARNING OBJECTIVE

• KC-1.3.II Advances in navigation, cartography, and military technology enabled Europeans to establish overseas colonies and empires. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS

Learning Objective Unit 1.H: Explain the motivations for and effects of European exploration and expansion from 1450 to 1648.

• KC-1.3.I.A European states sought direct access to gold, spices, and luxury goods to enhance personal wealth and state power.
• KC-1.3.I.B The rise of mercantilism gave the state a new role in promoting commercial development and the acquisition of colonies overseas.
• KC-1.3.I.C Christianity was a stimulus for exploration as governments and religious authorities sought to spread the faith, and for some it served as a justification for the subjugation of indigenous civilizations.

Illustrative examples:

• Navigational technology:
  • Compass
  • Sternpost rudder
  • Portolani
  • Quadrant and astrolabe
  • Lateen rig
• Military technology:
  • Guns and gunpowder
• States seeking access to luxury goods:
  • Spanish in the New World
  • Portuguese in the Indian Ocean World
  • Dutch in the East Indies/Asia
• Mercantilist policies employed by the state:
  • Jean-Baptiste Colbert
• Religion and exploration:
  • Jesuit activities

1.9 The Slave Trade

Thematic Focus (INT): Interaction of Europe and the World — Motivated by a variety of factors, Europe’s interaction with the world led to political, economic, social, and cultural exchanges that influenced both European and non-European societies.

Learning Objective Unit 1.L: Explain the causes for and the development of the slave trade.

• KC-1.3.IV.C Europeans expanded the trade of enslaved Africans in response to the establishment of a plantation economy in the Americas and demographic catastrophes among indigenous peoples.

Illustrative examples:

• Slave trade developments:
  • Middle Passage
  • Planter society

1.4 Printing

Thematic Focus (TSI): Technological and Scientific Innovation — Scientific and technological innovations have increased efficiency, improved daily life, and shaped human development and interactions, having both intended and unintended consequences.

Learning Objective Unit 1.E: Explain the influence of the printing press on cultural and intellectual developments in modern European history.

• KC-1.1.II The invention of printing promoted the dissemination of new ideas.
  • KC-1.1.II.A The invention of the printing press in the 1450s helped spread the Renaissance beyond Italy and encouraged the growth of vernacular literature, which would eventually contribute to the development of national cultures.

1.10 The Commercial Revolution

Thematic Focus (ECD): Economic and Commercial Developments — Economic development, especially the development of capitalism, played an important role in Europe’s history, often having significant social, political, and cultural effects.

Thematic Focus (SCD): Social Organization and Development — Economic, political, and cultural factors have influenced the form and status of family, class, and social groups in European history, which has, in turn, affected both the individual and society.

Learning Objective Unit 1.M: Explain European commercial and agricultural developments and their economic effects from 1450 to 1648.

• KC-1.4.I.A Innovations in banking and finance promoted the growth of urban financial centers and a money economy.
• KC-1.4.II Most Europeans derived their livelihood from agriculture and oriented their lives around the seasons, the village, or the manor, although economic changes began to alter rural production and power.
  • KC-1.4.II.A Subsistence agriculture was the rule in most areas, with three-crop field rotation in the north and two-crop rotation in the Mediterranean; in many cases, farmers paid rent and labor services for their lands.
  • KC-1.4.II.B The price revolution contributed to the accumulation of capital and the expansion of the market economy through the commercialization of agriculture, which benefited large landowners in western Europe.
  • KC-1.4.III.A Population recovered to its pre-Great Plague level in the 16th century, and continuing population pressures contributed to uneven price increases; agricultural commodities increased more sharply than wages, reducing living standards for some.

Learning Objective Unit 1.N: Explain European commercial and agricultural developments and their social effects from 1450 to 1648.

• KC-1.4.I Economic change produced new social patterns, while traditions of hierarchy and status continued.
  • KC-1.4.I.B The growth of commerce produced a new economic elite, which related to traditional land-holding elites in different ways in Europe’s various geographic regions.
• KC-1.4.II.C As western Europe moved toward a free peasantry and commercial agriculture, serfdom was codified in the east, where nobles continued to dominate economic life on large estates.
• KC-1.4.II.D The attempts of landlords to increase their revenues by restricting or abolishing the traditional rights of peasants led to revolt.
• KC-1.4.III.B Migrants to the cities challenged the ability of merchant elites and craft guilds to govern, and strained resources.
• KC-1.4.IV.C From the late 16th century on, Europeans responded to economic and environmental challenges, such as the Little Ice Age, by delaying marriage and childbearing. This European marriage pattern restrained population growth and ultimately improved the economic condition of families.

Illustrative examples:

• Innovations in banking and finance:
  • Double-entry bookkeeping
  • Bank of Amsterdam
  • The Dutch East India Company
  • The British East India Company
• The commercialization of agriculture:
  • Enclosure movement
  • Restricted use of the village common
  • Freehold tenure
• New economic elites:
  • Italian merchant princes
  • Nobles of the robe in France
• The way new migrants challenged urban elites:
  • Sanitation problems caused by overpopulation
  • Employment
  • Poverty
  • Crime

1.10 The Commercial Revolution

Thematic Focus (ECD): Economic and Commercial Developments — Economic development, especially the development of capitalism, played an important role in Europe’s history, often having significant social, political, and cultural effects.

Thematic Focus (SCD): Social Organization and Development — Economic, political, and cultural factors have influenced the form and status of family, class, and social groups in European history, which has, in turn, affected both the individual and society.

Learning Objective Unit 1.M: Explain European commercial and agricultural developments and their economic effects from 1450 to 1648.

• KC-1.4.I.A Innovations in banking and finance promoted the growth of urban financial centers and a money economy.
• KC-1.4.II Most Europeans derived their livelihood from agriculture and oriented their lives around the seasons, the village, or the manor, although economic changes began to alter rural production and power.
  • KC-1.4.II.A Subsistence agriculture was the rule in most areas, with three-crop field rotation in the north and two-crop rotation in the Mediterranean; in many cases, farmers paid rent and labor services for their lands.
  • KC-1.4.II.B The price revolution contributed to the accumulation of capital and the expansion of the market economy through the commercialization of agriculture, which benefited large landowners in western Europe.
  • KC-1.4.III.A Population recovered to its pre-Great Plague level in the 16th century, and continuing population pressures contributed to uneven price increases; agricultural commodities increased more sharply than wages, reducing living standards for some.

Learning Objective Unit 1.N: Explain European commercial and agricultural developments and their social effects from 1450 to 1648.

• KC-1.4.I Economic change produced new social patterns, while traditions of hierarchy and status continued.
  • KC-1.4.I.B The growth of commerce produced a new economic elite, which related to traditional land-holding elites in different ways in Europe’s various geographic regions.
• KC-1.4.II.C As western Europe moved toward a free peasantry and commercial agriculture, serfdom was codified in the east, where nobles continued to dominate economic life on large estates.
• KC-1.4.II.D The attempts of landlords to increase their revenues by restricting or abolishing the traditional rights of peasants led to revolt.
• KC-1.4.III.B Migrants to the cities challenged the ability of merchant elites and craft guilds to govern, and strained resources.
• KC-1.4.IV.C From the late 16th century on, Europeans responded to economic and environmental challenges, such as the Little Ice Age, by delaying marriage and childbearing. This European marriage pattern restrained population growth and ultimately improved the economic condition of families.

Illustrative examples:

• Innovations in banking and finance:
  • Double-entry bookkeeping
  • Bank of Amsterdam
  • The Dutch East India Company
  • The British East India Company
• The commercialization of agriculture:
  • Enclosure movement
  • Restricted use of the village common
  • Freehold tenure
• New economic elites:
  • Italian merchant princes
  • Nobles of the robe in France
• The way new migrants challenged urban elites:
  • Sanitation problems caused by overpopulation
  • Employment
  • Poverty
  • Crime

1.11 Causation in the Renaissance and Age of Discovery

Learning Objective Unit 1.O: Explain the causes and consequences of the Renaissance and Age of Discovery.

• KC-1.1 The rediscovery of works from ancient Greece and Rome and observation of the natural world changed many Europeans’ view of their world.
  • KC-1.1.I A revival of classical texts led to new methods of scholarship and new values in both society and religion.
  • KC-1.1.III The visual arts incorporated the new ideas of the Renaissance and were used to promote personal, political, and religious goals.
• KC-1.3 Europeans explored and settled overseas territories, encountering and interacting with indigenous populations.
  • KC-1.3.I European nations were driven by commercial and religious motives to explore overseas territories and establish colonies.
• KC-1.4 European society and the experiences of everyday life were increasingly shaped by commercial and agricultural capitalism, notwithstanding the continued existence of medieval social and economic structures.
  • KC-1.4.I Economic change produced new social patterns, while traditions of hierarchy and status continued.
  • KC-1.4.II Most Europeans derived their livelihood from agriculture and oriented their lives around the seasons, the village, or the manor, although economic changes began to alter rural production and power.
• KC-1.5 The struggle for sovereignty within and among states resulted in varying degrees of political centralization.
  • KC-1.5.I The new concept of the sovereign state and secular systems of law played a central role in the creation of new political institutions.

2.1 Contextualizing 16th- and 17th-Century Challenges and Developments

Learning Objective Unit 2.A: Explain the context in which the religious, political, and cultural developments of the 16th and 17th centuries took place.

• KC-1.2 Religious pluralism challenged the concept of a unified Europe.
  • KC-1.2.I The Protestant and Catholic reformations fundamentally changed theology, religious institutions, culture, and attitudes toward wealth and prosperity.
  • KC-1.2.II Religious reform both increased state control of religious institutions and provided justifications for challenging state authority.
  • KC-1.2.III Conflicts among religious groups overlapped with political and economic competition within and among states.
• KC-1.4 European society and the experiences of everyday life were increasingly shaped by commercial and agricultural capitalism, notwithstanding the continued existence of medieval social and economic structures.
  • KC-1.4.III Population shifts and growing commerce caused the expansion of cities, which often placed stress on their traditional political and social structures.
  • KC-1.4.IV The family remained the primary social and economic institution of early modern Europe and took several forms, including the nuclear family.
  • KC-1.4.V Popular culture, leisure activities, and rituals reflecting the continued popularity of folk ideas reinforced and sometimes challenged communal ties and norms.
• KC-1.5 The struggle for sovereignty within and among states resulted in varying degrees of political centralization.
  • KC-1.5.I The new concept of the sovereign state and secular systems of law played a central role in the creation of new political institutions.

2.2 Luther and the Protestant Reformation

Thematic Focus (CID): Cultural and Intellectual Developments — The creation and transmission of knowledge, including the relationship between traditional sources of authority and the development of differing world views, had significant political, intellectual, economic, cultural, and social effects on European and world societies.

Learning Objective Unit 2.B: Explain how and why religious belief and practices changed from 1450 to 1648.

• KC-1.2.I.B Reformers Martin Luther and John Calvin criticized Catholic abuses and established new interpretations of Christian doctrine and practice. Responses to Luther and Calvin included religious radicals, including the Anabaptists, and other groups, such as German peasants.
• KC-1.2.I.C Some Protestant groups sanctioned the notion that wealth accumulation was a sign of God’s favor and a reward for hard work.

Illustrative examples:

• New Protestant interpretations of Christian doctrine and practice:
  • Priesthood of all believers
  • Primacy of scripture §Bullet Predestination §Bullet Salvation by faith alone
• Protestants who viewed wealth as signs of God’s favor: §Bullet Calvinists

2.3 Protestant Reform Continues

Thematic Focus (CID): Cultural and Intellectual Developments — The creation and transmission of knowledge, including the relationship between traditional sources of authority and the development of differing world views, had significant political, intellectual, economic, cultural, and social effects on European and world societies.

Learning Objective Unit 2.B: Explain how and why religious belief and practices changed from 1450 to 1648.

• KC-1.1.II.B Protestant reformers used the printing press to disseminate their ideas, which spurred religious reform and helped it to become widely established.
• KC-1.2.II.B Some Protestants, including Calvin and the Anabaptists, refused to recognize the subordination of the church to the secular state.
• KC-1.2.II.C Religious conflicts became a basis for challenging the monarchs’ control of religious institutions.

Illustrative examples:

• Reformers using press to disseminate ideas: §Bullet Martin Luther §Bullet Vernacular Bibles Religious conflicts caused by groups challenging the monarch’s control of religious institutions:
  • Huguenots
  • Puritans
  • Nobles in Poland

2.4 Wars of Religion

Thematic Focus (SOP): States and Other Institutions of Power — European states and nations developed governmental and civil institutions from 1450 to the present to organize society and consolidate political power, with a variety of social, cultural, and economic effects.

Learning Objective Unit 2.C: Explain how matters of religion influenced and were influenced by political factors from 1450 to 1648.

• KC-1.2.III.A Issues of religious reform exacerbated conflicts between the monarchy and the nobility, as in the French wars of religion.
• KC-1.2.III.B Habsburg rulers confronted an expanded Ottoman Empire while attempting unsuccessfully to restore Catholic unity across Europe.
• KC-1.2.III.C States exploited religious conflicts to promote political and economic interests.
• KC-1.2.III.D A few states, such as France with the Edict of Nantes, allowed religious pluralism in order to maintain domestic peace.
• KC-1.5.I.B The Peace of Westphalia (1648), which marked the effective end of the medieval ideal of universal Christendom, accelerated the decline of the Holy Roman Empire by granting princes, bishops, and other local leaders control over religion.

Illustrative examples:

• Key factors in the French wars of religion:
  • Catherine de’ Medici
  • St. Bartholomew’s Day massacre
  • War of the Three Henrys
  • Henry IV
• Habsburg rulers: §Bullet Charles V State exploitation of religious conflicts:
  • Catholic Spain and Protestant England
  • France, Sweden, and Denmark in the Thirty Years’ War
• States allowing religious pluralism:
  • Poland
  • The Netherlands

2.5 The Catholic Reformation

Thematic Focus (CID): Cultural and Intellectual Developments — The creation and transmission of knowledge, including the relationship between traditional sources of authority and the development of differing world views, had significant political, intellectual, economic, cultural, and social effects on European and world societies.

Learning Objective Unit 2.D: Explain the continuities and changes in the role of the Catholic Church from 1450 to 1648.

• KC-1.2.I.D The Catholic Reformation, exemplified by the Jesuit Order and the Council of Trent, revived the church but cemented division within Christianity.

Illustrative examples:

• The Catholic Reformation:
  • St. Teresa of Avila
  • Ursulines
  • Roman Inquisition
  • Index of Prohibited Books

2.6 16th-Century Society and Politics

Thematic Focus (SCD): Social Organization and Development — Economic, political, and cultural factors have influenced the form and status of family, class, and social groups in European history, which has, in turn, affected both the individual and society.

Learning Objective Unit 2.E: Explain how economic and intellectual developments from 1450 to 1648 affected social norms and hierarchies.

• KC-1.4.I.C Established hierarchies of class, religion, and gender continued to define social status and perceptions in rural and urban settings.
• KC-1.4.IV.A Rural and urban households worked as units, with men and women engaged in separate but complementary tasks.
• KC-1.4.IV.B The Renaissance and Reformation raised debates about female education and women’s roles in the family, church, and society.
• KC-1.4.III.C Social dislocation, coupled with the shifting authority of religious institutions during the Reformation, left city governments with the task of regulating public morals.
• KC-1.4.V.A Leisure activities continued to be organized according to the religious calendar and the agricultural cycle, and remained communal in nature.
• KC-1.4.V.B Local and church authorities continued to enforce communal norms through rituals of public humiliation.
• KC-1.4.V.C Reflecting folk ideas and social and economic upheaval, accusations of witchcraft peaked between 1580 and 1650.

Illustrative examples:

• Continued social hierarchies:
  • Prestige of land ownership
  • Aristocratic privileges regarding taxes, fees for services, and legal protections
  • Political exclusion of women
• Debates about female roles:
  • Women’s intellect and education
  • Women as preachers
  • La Querelle des Femmes
• Regulating public morals:
  • New secular laws regulating private life
  • Stricter codes on prostitution and begging
  • Abolishing or restricting Carnival
• Communal leisure activities:
  • Saint’s day festivities
  • Carnival
  • Blood sports
• Rituals of public humiliation:
  • Charivari
  • Stocks
  • Public whipping and branding
• Factors in witchcraft accusations:
  • Prominence of women
  • Regional variation
  • Social upheaval

2.7 Art of the 16th Century: Mannerism and Baroque Art

Thematic Focus (CID): Cultural and Intellectual Developments — The creation and transmission of knowledge, including the relationship between traditional sources of authority and the development of differing world views, had significant political, intellectual, economic, cultural, and social effects on European and world societies.

Learning Objective Unit 2.F: Explain how and why artistic expression changed from 1450 to 1648.

• KC-1.1.III.C Mannerist and Baroque artists employed distortion, drama, and illusion in their work. Monarchies, city-states, and the church commissioned these works as a means of promoting their own stature and power.

Illustrative examples:

• Mannerist and Baroque artists whose art was used in new public buildings:
  • El Greco
  • Artemisia Gentileschi
  • Gian Bernini
  • Peter Paul Rubens

2.8 Causation in the Age of Reformation and the Wars of Religion

Learning Objective Unit 2.G: Explain how the religious, political, and cultural developments of the 16th and 17th centuries affected European society from 1450 to 1648.

• KC-1.2 Religious pluralism challenged the concept of a unified Europe.
  • KC-1.2.I The Protestant and Catholic reformations fundamentally changed theology, religious institutions, culture, and attitudes toward wealth and prosperity.
  • KC-1.2.II Religious reform both increased state control of religious institutions and provided justifications for challenging state authority.
  • KC-1.2.III Conflicts among religious groups overlapped with political and economic competition within and among states.
• KC-1.4 European society and the experiences of everyday life were increasingly shaped by commercial and agricultural capitalism, notwithstanding the continued existence of medieval social and economic structures.
  • KC-1.4.III Population shifts and growing commerce caused the expansion of cities, which often placed stress on their traditional political and social structures.
  • KC-1.4.IV The family remained the primary social and economic institution of early modern Europe and took several forms, including the nuclear family.
  • KC-1.4.V Popular culture, leisure activities, and rituals reflecting the continued popularity of folk ideas reinforced and sometimes challenged communal ties and norms.
• KC-1.5 The struggle for sovereignty within and among states resulted in varying degrees of political centralization.
  • KC-1.5.I The new concept of the sovereign state and secular systems of law played a central role in the creation of new political institutions.

3.1 Contextualizing State Building

Learning Objective Unit 3.A: Explain the context in which different forms of political power developed from 1648 to 1815.

• KC-1.5 The struggle for sovereignty within and among states resulted in varying degrees of political centralization.
  • KC-1.5.I The new concept of the sovereign state and secular systems of law played a central role in the creation of new political institutions.
  • KC-1.5.III The competition for power between monarchs and corporate and minority language groups produced different distributions of governmental authority in European states.
  • KC-1.5.III.B Monarchies seeking enhanced power faced challenges from nobles who wished to retain traditional forms of shared governance and regional autonomy.
  • KC-1.5.III.C Within states, minority local and regional identities based on language and culture led to resistance against the dominant national group.
• KC-2.1 Different models of political sovereignty affected the relationship among states and between states and individuals.
  • KC-2.1.I In much of Europe, absolute monarchy was established over the course of the 17th and 18th centuries.
  • KC-2.1.II Challenges to absolutism resulted in alternative political systems.

Illustrative examples:

• Competition between monarchs and nobles:
  • Louis XIII and Cardinal Richelieu §Bullet
  • The Fronde in France
  • The Catalan Revolts in Spain
• Competition between minority and dominant national groups:
  • Celtic regions of Scotland, Ireland, and France
  • Dutch resistance in the Spanish Netherlands
  • Czech identity in the Holy Roman Empire/ Jan Hus/Defenestration

3.3 Continuities and Changes to Economic Practice and Development

Thematic Focus (ECD): Economic and Commercial Developments — Economic development, especially the development of capitalism, played an important role in Europe’s history, often having significant social, political, and cultural effects.

Learning Objective Unit 3.C: Explain the continuities and changes in commercial and economic developments from 1648 to 1815.

• KC-2.2.I.B The Agricultural Revolution raised productivity and increased the supply of food and other agricultural products.
• KC-2.2.II.D The importation and transplantation of agricultural products from the Americas contributed to an increase in the food supply in Europe.
• KC-2.2.I.A Labor and trade in commodities were increasingly freed from traditional restrictions imposed by governments and corporate entities.
• KC-2.2.I.C The putting-out system, or cottage industry, expanded as increasing numbers of laborers in homes or workshops produced for markets through merchant intermediaries or workshop owners.
• KC-2.2.I.D The development of the market economy led to new financial practices and institutions.
• KC-2.2.I Early modern Europe developed a market economy that provided the foundation for its global role.

Illustrative examples:

• New financial practices and institutions: § Insurance § Banking institutions for turning private savings into venture capital § New definitions of property rights and protections against confiscation § Bank of England

3.4 Economic Development and Mercantilism

Thematic Focus (ECD): Economic and Commercial Developments — Economic development, especially the development of capitalism, played an important role in Europe’s history, often having significant social, political, and cultural effects.

Learning Objective Unit 3.C: Explain the continuities and changes in commercial and economic developments from 1648 to 1815.

• KC-2.2.II The European-dominated worldwide economic network contributed to the agricultural, industrial, and consumer revolutions in Europe.
  • KC-2.2.II.A European states followed mercantilist policies by drawing resources from colonies in the New World and elsewhere.
  • KC-2.2.II.B The transatlantic slave-labor system expanded in the 17th and 18th centuries as demand for New World products increased.
  • KC-2.2.II.C Overseas products and influences contributed to the development of a consumer culture in Europe.
  • KC-2.2.II.D The importation and transplantation of agricultural products from the Americas contributed to an increase in the food supply in Europe.
  • KC-2.2.II.E Foreign lands provided raw materials, finished goods, laborers, and markets for the commercial and industrial enterprises in Europe.

Illustrative examples:

• Transatlantic slave-labor systems:
  • Middle Passage
  • Triangle trade
• Overseas products:
  • Sugar
  • Tea
  • Silks and other fabrics
  • Tobacco
  • Rum
  • Coffee

3.5 The Dutch Golden Age

Thematic Focus (SOP): States and Other Institutions of Power — European states and nations developed governmental and civil institutions from 1450 to the present to organize society and consolidate political power, with a variety of social, cultural, and economic effects.

Learning Objective Unit 3.D: Explain the factors that contributed to the development of the Dutch Republic.

• KC-2.1.II.B The Dutch Republic, established by a Protestant revolt against the Habsburg monarchy, developed an oligarchy of urban gentry and rural landholders to promote trade and protect traditional rights.

3.6 Balance of Power

Thematic Focus (SOP): States and Other Institutions of Power — European states and nations developed governmental and civil institutions from 1450 to the present to organize society and consolidate political power, with a variety of social, cultural, and economic effects.

Learning Objective Unit 3.E: Explain how European states attempted to establish and maintain a balance of power on the continent throughout the period from 1648 to 1815.

• KC-1.5.II The competitive state system led to new patterns of diplomacy and new forms of warfare.
  • KC-1.5.II.A Following the Peace of Westphalia, religion declined in importance as a cause for warfare among European states; the concept of the balance of power played an important role in structuring diplomatic and military objectives.
• KC-2.1.I.D The inability of the Polish monarchy to consolidate its authority over the nobility led to Poland’s partition by Prussia, Russia, and Austria, and its disappearance from the map of Europe.
• KC-2.1.III After 1648, dynastic and state interests, along with Europe’s expanding colonial empires, influenced the diplomacy of European states and frequently led to war.
  • KC-2.1.III.B After the Austrian defeat of the Turks in 1683 at the Battle of Vienna, the Ottomans ceased their westward expansion.
  • KC-2.1.III.C Louis XIV’s nearly continuous wars, pursuing both dynastic and state interests, provoked a coalition of European powers opposing him. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS

Learning Objective Unit 3.F: Explain how advances in technology contributed to a developing balance of power on the continent throughout the period from 1648 to 1815.

• KC-1.5.II.B Advances in military technology led to new forms of warfare, including greater reliance on infantry, firearms, mobile cannon, and more elaborate fortifications, all financed by heavier taxation and requiring a larger bureaucracy. New military techniques and institutions (i.e., the military revolution) tipped the balance of power toward states able to marshal sufficient resources for the new military environment.

Illustrative examples:

• Louis XIV’s nearly continuous wars:
  • Dutch War
  • Nine Years’ War
  • War of the Spanish Succession
• States that benefited from the military revolution:
  • Spain under the Habsburgs §Bullet Sweden under Gustavus Adolphus §Bullet France

3.7 Absolutist Approaches to Power

Thematic Focus (SOP): States and Other Institutions of Power — European states and nations developed governmental and civil institutions from 1450 to the present to organize society and consolidate political power, with a variety of social, cultural, and economic effects.

Learning Objective Unit 3.G: Explain how absolutist forms of rule affected social and political development from 1648 to 1815.

• KC-2.1.I.A Absolute monarchies limited the nobility’s participation in governance but preserved the aristocracy’s social position and legal privileges.
• KC-2.1.I.B Louis XIV and his finance minister, Jean-Baptiste Colbert, extended the administrative, financial, military, and religious control of the central state over the French population.
• KC-2.1.I.E Peter the Great “westernized” the Russian state and society, transforming political, religious, and cultural institutions; Catherine the Great continued this process.

Illustrative examples:

• Absolute monarchs:
  • James I of England
  • Peter the Great of Russia
  • Philip II, III, and IV of Spain
• Extended power of the state: §Bullet Intendants §Bullet Modernized, state-controlled military Russian westernization: §Bullet Russian Academy of Sciences §Bullet Education §Bullet Western fashion §Bullet Expanded military

4.1 Contextualizing the Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment

Learning Objective Unit 4.A: Explain the context in which the Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment developed in Europe.

• KC-1.1 The rediscovery of works from ancient Greece and Rome and observation of the natural world changed many Europeans’ view of their world.
  • KC-1.1.IV New ideas in science based on observation, experimentation, and mathematics challenged classical views of the cosmos, nature, and the human body, although existing traditions of knowledge and the universe continued.
• KC-2.3 The spread of Scientific Revolution concepts and practices and the Enlightenment’s application of these concepts and practices to political, social, and ethical issues led to an increased but not unchallenged emphasis on reason in European culture.
  • KC-2.3.I Enlightenment thought, which focused on concepts such as empiricism, skepticism, human reason, rationalism, and classical sources of knowledge, challenged the prevailing patterns of thought with respect to social order, institutions of government, and the role of faith.
  • KC-2.3.II New public venues and print media popularized Enlightenment ideas.
  • KC-2.3.III New political and economic theories challenged absolutism and mercantilism.
  • KC-2.3.IV During the Enlightenment, the rational analysis of religious practices led to natural religion and the demand for religious toleration.
• KC-2.4 The experiences of everyday life were shaped by demographic, environmental, medical, and technological changes.
  • KC-2.4.III By the 18th century, family and private life reflected new demographic patterns and the effects of the commercial revolution.

4.2 The Scientific Revolution

Thematic Focus (TSI): Technological and Scientific Innovation — Scientific and technological innovations have increased efficiency, improved daily life, and shaped human development and interactions, having both intended and unintended consequences.

Learning Objective Unit 4.B: Explain how understanding of the natural world developed and changed during the Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment.

• KC-1.1.IV.A New ideas and methods in astronomy led individuals, including Copernicus, Galileo, and Newton, to question the authority of the ancients and traditional knowledge, and to develop a heliocentric view of the cosmos.
• KC-1.1.IV.B Anatomical and medical discoveries by physicians, including William Harvey, presented the body as an integrated system, challenging the traditional humoral theory of the body and of disease espoused by Galen.
• KC-1.1.IV.C Francis Bacon and René Descartes defined inductive and deductive reasoning and promoted experimentation and the use of mathematics, which would ultimately shape the scientific method.
• KC-1.1.IV.D Alchemy and astrology continued to appeal to elites and some natural philosophers, in part because they shared with the new science the notion of a predictable and knowable universe. At the same time, many people continued to believe that the cosmos was governed by spiritual forces.

Illustrative examples:

• Additional physicians who challenged Galen:
  • Paracelsus
  • Andreas Vesalius
• Natural philosophers who continued to hold traditional views of alchemy and astrology:
  • Paracelsus
  • Johannes Kepler
  • Sir Isaac Newton

4.6 Enlightened and Other Approaches to Power

Thematic Focus (SOP): States and Other Institutions of Power — European states and nations developed governmental and civil institutions from 1450 to the present to organize society and consolidate political power, with a variety of social, cultural, and economic effects.

Learning Objective Unit 4.G: Explain how different forms of political power were influenced by Enlightenment thought from 1648 to 1815. THEMATIC FOCUS National and European Identity NEI Definitions and perceptions of regional, cultural, national, and European identity have developed and been challenged over time, with varied and often profound effects on the political, social, and cultural order in Europe. LEARNING OBJECTIVE

• KC-2.1.I.C In the 18th century, a number of states in eastern and central Europe experimented with enlightened absolutism.
• KC-2.3.IV.C By 1800, most governments in western and central Europe had extended toleration to Christian minorities and, in some states, civil equality to Jews. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS

Learning Objective Unit 4.H: Explain how and why political and religious developments challenged or reinforced the idea of a unified Europe from 1648 to 1815.

• KC-2.1.III.A As a result of the Holy Roman Empire’s limitation of sovereignty in the Peace of Westphalia, Prussia rose to power, and the Habsburgs, centered in Austria, shifted their empire eastward.

Illustrative examples:

• Enlightened monarchs: §Bullet Frederick II of Prussia §Bullet Joseph II of Austria Prussian and Habsburg rulers:
  • Maria Theresa of Austria
  • Frederick William I of Prussia
  • Frederick II of Prussia

4.7 Causation in the Age of the Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment

Learning Objective Unit 4.I: Explain how and why the Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment challenged the existing European order and understanding of the world.

• KC-1.1 The rediscovery of works from ancient Greece and Rome and observation of the natural world changed many Europeans’ view of their world.
  • KC-1.1.IV New ideas in science based on observation, experimentation, and mathematics challenged classical views of the cosmos, nature, and the human body, although existing traditions of knowledge and the universe continued.
• KC-2.3 The spread of Scientific Revolution concepts and practices and the Enlightenment’s application of these concepts and practices to political, social, and ethical issues led to an increased but not unchallenged emphasis on reason in European culture.
  • KC-2.3.I Enlightenment thought, which focused on concepts such as empiricism, skepticism, human reason, rationalism, and classical sources of knowledge, challenged the prevailing patterns of thought with respect to social order, institutions of government, and the role of faith.
  • KC-2.3.II New public venues and print media popularized Enlightenment ideas.
  • KC-2.3.III New political and economic theories challenged absolutism and mercantilism.
  • KC-2.3.IV During the Enlightenment, the rational analysis of religious practices led to natural religion and the demand for religious toleration.
• KC-2.4 The experiences of everyday life were shaped by demographic, environmental, medical, and technological changes.
  • KC-2.4.III By the 18th century, family and private life reflected new demographic patterns and the effects of the commercial revolution.

5.1 Contextualizing 18th-Century States

Learning Objective Unit 5.A: Explain the context in which the European states experienced crisis and conflict from 1648 to 1815.

• KC-2.1 Different models of political sovereignty affected the relationship among states and between states and individuals.
  • KC-2.1.IV The French Revolution posed a fundamental challenge to Europe’s existing political and social order.
  • KC-2.1.V Claiming to defend the ideals of the French Revolution, Napoleon Bonaparte imposed French control over much of the European continent, which eventually provoked a nationalistic reaction.
• KC-2.2 The expansion of European commerce accelerated the growth of a worldwide economic network.
  • KC-2.2.III Commercial rivalries influenced diplomacy and warfare among European states in the early modern era.
• KC-2.3 The spread of Scientific Revolution concepts and practices and the Enlightenment’s application of these concepts and practices to political, social, and ethical issues led to an increased but not unchallenged emphasis on reason in European culture.
  • KC-2.3.VI While Enlightenment values dominated the world of European ideas and culture, they were challenged by the revival of public expression of emotions and feeling.
  • KC-2.3.VI.D Revolution, war and rebellion demonstrated the emotional power of mass politics and nationalism.

5.2 The Rise of Global Markets

Thematic Focus (ECD): Economic and Commercial Developments — Economic development, especially the development of capitalism, played an important role in Europe’s history, often having significant social, political, and cultural effects.

Learning Objective Unit 5.B: Explain the causes and consequences of European maritime competition from 1648 to 1815.

• KC-2.2 The expansion of European commerce accelerated the growth of a worldwide economic network.
  • KC-2.2.III Commercial rivalries influenced diplomacy and warfare among European states in the early modern era.
  • KC-2.2.III.A European sea powers vied for Atlantic influence throughout the 18th century.
  • KC-2.2.III.B Portuguese, Dutch, French, and British rivalries in Asia culminated in British domination in India and Dutch control of the East Indies.

5.3 Britain’s Ascendency

Thematic Focus (SOP): States and Other Institutions of Power — European states and nations developed governmental and civil institutions from 1450 to the present to organize society and consolidate political power, with a variety of social, cultural, and economic effects.

Learning Objective Unit 5.C: Explain the economic and political consequences of the rivalry between Britain and France from 1648 to 1815.

• KC-2.1.III.D Rivalry between Britain and France resulted in world wars fought both in Europe and in the colonies, with Britain supplanting France as the greatest European power.

Illustrative examples:

• Conflict between the French and the British: §Bullet Seven Years’ War §Bullet American Revolution

5.4 The French Revolution

Thematic Focus (SOP): States and Other Institutions of Power — European states and nations developed governmental and civil institutions from 1450 to the present to organize society and consolidate political power, with a variety of social, cultural, and economic effects.

Learning Objective Unit 5.D: Explain the causes, events, and consequences of the French Revolution.

• KC-2.1.IV.A The French Revolution resulted from a combination of long-term social and political causes, as well as Enlightenment ideas, exacerbated by short-term fiscal and economic crises.
• KC-2.1.IV.B The first, or liberal, phase of the French Revolution established a constitutional monarchy, increased popular participation, nationalized the Catholic Church, and abolished hereditary privileges.
• KC-2.1.IV.C After the execution of Louis XVI, the radical Jacobin republic led by Robespierre responded to opposition at home and war abroad by instituting the Reign of Terror, fixing prices and wages, and pursuing a policy of de-Christianization.
• KC-2.1.IV.D Revolutionary armies, raised by mass conscription, sought to bring the changes initiated in France to the rest of Europe.
• KC-2.1.IV.E Women enthusiastically participated in the early phases of the revolution; however, while there were brief improvements in the legal status of women, citizenship in the republic was soon restricted to men.

Illustrative examples:

• Causes of the French Revolution: §Bullet Peasant and bourgeois grievances §Bullet Bread shortages §Bullet French involvement in American Revolution Actions taken during the moderate phase of the French Revolution: §Bullet Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen §Bullet Civil Constitution of the Clergy §Bullet Constitution of 1791 §Bullet Abolition of provinces and division of France into departments Radical Jacobin leaders and institutions: §Bullet Georges Danton §Bullet Jean-Paul Marat §Bullet Committee of Public Safety Mass conscription: §Bullet Levée en masse Female involvement in the revolution: §Bullet October March on Versailles §Bullet Olympe de Gouges §Bullet Society of Republican Revolutionary Women

5.5 The French Revolution’s Effects

Thematic Focus (SCD): Social Organization and Development — Economic, political, and cultural factors have influenced the form and status of family, class, and social groups in European history, which has, in turn, affected both the individual and society.

Learning Objective Unit 5.E: Explain how the events and developments of the French Revolution influenced political and social ideas from 1648 to 1815.

• KC-2.1.IV.F Revolutionary ideals inspired a revolt of enslaved people led by Toussaint L’Ouverture in the French colony of Saint-Domingue, which became the independent nation of Haiti in 1804.
• KC-2.1.IV.G While many were inspired by the revolution’s emphasis on equality and human rights, others condemned its violence and disregard for traditional authority.

Illustrative examples:

• Opponents of the revolution: §Bullet Edmund Burke

5.6 Napoleon’s Rise, Dominance, and Defeat

Thematic Focus (SOP): States and Other Institutions of Power — European states and nations developed governmental and civil institutions from 1450 to the present to organize society and consolidate political power, with a variety of social, cultural, and economic effects.

Learning Objective Unit 5.F: Explain the effects of Napoleon’s rule on European social, economic, and political life. THEMATIC FOCUS National and European Identity NEI Definitions and perceptions of regional, cultural, national, and European identity have developed and been challenged over time, with varied and often profound effects on the political, social, and cultural order in Europe. LEARNING OBJECTIVE

• KC-2.1.V.A As first consul and emperor, Napoleon undertook a number of enduring domestic reforms while often curtailing some rights and manipulating popular impulses behind a façade of representative institutions.
• KC-2.1.V.B Napoleon’s new military tactics allowed him to exert direct or indirect control over much of the European continent, spreading the ideals of the French Revolution across Europe. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS

Learning Objective Unit 5.G: Explain the nationalist responses to Napoleon’s rule in Europe.

• KC-2.1.V.C Napoleon’s expanding empire created nationalist responses throughout Europe.

Illustrative examples:

• Reforms under Napoleon: §Bullet Careers open to talent §Bullet Educational system §Bullet Centralized bureaucracy §Bullet Civil Code §Bullet Concordat of 1801 Curtailment of rights under Napoleon: §Bullet Secret police §Bullet Censorship §Bullet Limitation of women’s rights Nationalist responses to Napoleon: §Bullet Student protest in German states §Bullet Guerilla war in Spain §Bullet Russian scorched earth policy

5.7 The Congress of Vienna

Thematic Focus (SOP): States and Other Institutions of Power — European states and nations developed governmental and civil institutions from 1450 to the present to organize society and consolidate political power, with a variety of social, cultural, and economic effects.

Learning Objective Unit 5.H: Explain how states responded to Napoleonic rule in Europe and the consequences of the response.

• KC-2.1.V.D After the defeat of Napoleon by a coalition of European powers, the Congress of Vienna (1814–1815) attempted to restore the balance of power in Europe and contain the danger of revolutionary or nationalistic upheavals in the future.

5.8 Romanticism

Thematic Focus (CID): Cultural and Intellectual Developments — The creation and transmission of knowledge, including the relationship between traditional sources of authority and the development of differing world views, had significant political, intellectual, economic, cultural, and social effects on European and world societies.

Learning Objective Unit 5.I: Explain how and why the Romantic Movement and religious revival challenged Enlightenment thought from 1648 to 1815.

• KC-2.3.VI.A Rousseau questioned the exclusive reliance on reason and emphasized the role of emotions in the moral improvement of self and society.
• KC-2.3.VI.B Romanticism emerged as a challenge to Enlightenment rationality.
• KC-2.3.VI.C Consistent with the Romantic Movement, religious revival occurred in Europe and included notable movements such as Methodism, founded by John Wesley.
• KC-2.3.VI.D Revolution, war, and rebellion demonstrated the emotional power of mass politics and nationalism.

5.9 Continuity and Change in 18th-Century States

Learning Objective Unit 5.J: Explain how the developments and challenges to the political order resulted in change in the period from 1648 to 1815.

• KC-2.1 Different models of political sovereignty affected the relationship among states and between states and individuals.
  • KC-2.1.IV The French Revolution posed a fundamental challenge to Europe’s existing political and social order.
  • KC-2.1.V Claiming to defend the ideals of the French Revolution, Napoleon Bonaparte imposed French control over much of the European continent, which eventually provoked a nationalistic reaction.
• KC-2.2 The expansion of European commerce accelerated the growth of a worldwide economic network.
  • KC-2.2.III Commercial rivalries influenced diplomacy and warfare among European states in the early modern era.
• KC-2.3 The spread of Scientific Revolution concepts and practices and the Enlightenment’s application of these concepts and practices to political, social, and ethical issues led to an increased but not unchallenged emphasis on reason in European culture.
  • KC-2.3.VI While Enlightenment values dominated the world of European ideas and culture, they were challenged by the revival of public expression of emotions and feeling.
  • KC-2.3.VI.D Revolution, war and rebellion demonstrated the emotional power of mass politics and nationalism.

6.1 Contextualizing Industrialization and Its Origins and Effects

Learning Objective Unit 6.A: Explain the context in which industrialization originated, developed, and spread in Europe.

• KC-3.1 The Industrial Revolution spread from Great Britain to the continent, where the state played a greater role in promoting industry.
  • KC-3.1.I Great Britain established its industrial dominance through the mechanization of textile production, iron and steel production, and new transportation systems in conjunction with uniquely favorable political and social climates.
  • KC-3.1.II Following the British example, industrialization took root in continental Europe, sometimes with state sponsorship.
• KC-3.2 The experiences of everyday life were shaped by industrialization, depending on the level of industrial development in a particular location.
  • KC-3.2.I Industrialization promoted the development of new classes in the industrial regions of Europe.
  • KC-3.2.II Europe experienced rapid population growth and urbanization, leading to social dislocations.
  • KC-3.2.III Over time, the Industrial Revolution altered the family structure and relations for bourgeois and working-class families.
• KC-3.3 Political revolutions and the complications resulting from industrialization triggered a range of ideological, governmental, and collective responses.
  • KC-3.3.I Ideologies developed and took root throughout society as a response to industrial and political revolutions.
  • KC-3.3.II Governments, at times based on the pressure of political or social organizations, responded to problems created or exacerbated by industrialization.

6.2 The Spread of Industry Throughout Europe

Thematic Focus (ECD): Economic and Commercial Developments — Economic development, especially the development of capitalism, played an important role in Europe’s history, often having significant social, political, and cultural effects.

Learning Objective Unit 6.B: Explain the factors that influenced the development of industrialization in Europe from 1815 to 1914.

• KC-3.1.I.A Britain’s ready supplies of coal, iron ore, and other essential raw materials promoted industrial growth.
• KC-3.1.I Great Britain established its industrial dominance through the mechanization of textile production, iron and steel production, and new transportation systems in conjunction with uniquely favorable political and social climates.
• KC-3.1.I.B Economic institutions and human capital such as engineers, inventors, and capitalists helped Britain lead the process of industrialization, largely through private initiative.
• KC-3.1.I.C Britain’s parliamentary government promoted commercial and industrial interests because those interests were represented in Parliament.
• KC-3.1.II.A France moved toward industrialization at a more gradual pace than Great Britain, with government support and with less dislocation of traditional methods of production.
• KC-3.1.II.C A combination of factors, including geography, lack of resources, the dominance of traditional landed elites, the persistence of serfdom in some areas, and inadequate government sponsorship, accounted for eastern and southern Europe’s lag in industrial development.
• KC-3.2.V Because of the continued existence of more primitive agricultural practices and land-owning patterns, some areas of Europe lagged in industrialization while facing famine, debt, and land shortages.

Illustrative examples:

• Britain’s leadership: §Bullet The Crystal Palace at the Great Exhibition of 1851 §Bullet Banks §Bullet Government financial awards to inventors Commercial interest in government: §Bullet Repeal of the Corn Laws Government support of industrialization: §Bullet Canals §Bullet Railroads §Bullet Trade agreements Geographic factors in eastern and southern Europe: §Bullet Lack of resources §Bullet Lack of adequate transportation Primitive agricultural practices and famines: §Bullet The “Hungry ’40s” §Bullet Irish potato famine §Bullet Russian serfdom

6.3 Second Wave Industrialization and Its Effects

Thematic Focus (TSI): Technological and Scientific Innovation — Scientific and technological innovations have increased efficiency, improved daily life, and shaped human development and interactions, having both intended and unintended consequences.

Thematic Focus (ECD): Economic and Commercial Developments — Economic development, especially the development of capitalism, played an important role in Europe’s history, often having significant social, political, and cultural effects.

Learning Objective Unit 6.C: Explain how innovations and advances in technology during the Industrial Revolutions led to economic and social change.

• KC-3.1.III.A Mechanization and the factory system became the predominant modes of production by 1914.
• KC-3.1.III.B New technologies and means of communication and transportation—including railroads— resulted in more fully integrated national economies, a higher level of urbanization, and a truly global economic network.
• KC-3.2.IV.B New, efficient methods of transportation and other innovations created new industries, improved the distribution of goods, increased consumerism, and enhanced quality of life.

Learning Objective Unit 6.D: Explain how industrialization influenced economic and political development throughout the period from 1815 to 1914.

• KC-3.1.III During the second industrial revolution (c. 1870–1914), more areas of Europe experienced industrial activity, and industrial processes increased in scale and complexity.
  • KC-3.1.III.C Volatile business cycles in the last quarter of the 19th century led corporations and governments to try to manage the market through a variety of methods, including monopolies, banking practices, and tariffs.
• KC-3.2.II.A Along with better harvests caused in part by the commercialization of agriculture, industrialization promoted population growth, longer life expectancy, and lowered infant mortality.
• KC-3.2.IV A heightened consumerism developed as a result of the second industrial revolution.
  • KC-3.2.IV.A Industrialization and mass marketing increased both the production and demand for a new range of consumer goods— including clothing, processed foods, and labor-saving devices—and created more leisure opportunities.
  • KC-3.2.IV.A Industrialization in Prussia allowed that state to become the leader of a unified Germany, which subsequently underwent rapid industrialization under government sponsorship.

Illustrative examples:

• Factory production: §Bullet Manchester, England §Bullet The Krupp family (Essen, Germany) New technologies: §Bullet Bessemer process §Bullet Mass production §Bullet Electricity §Bullet Chemicals Developments in communication and transportation: §Bullet Telegraph §Bullet Steamship §Bullet Streetcars or trolley cars §Bullet Telephones §Bullet Internal combustion engine §Bullet Airplane §Bullet Radio New, efficient methods of transportation and other innovations: §Bullet Steamships §Bullet Railroads §Bullet Refrigerated rail cars §Bullet Ice boxes §Bullet Streetcars §Bullet Bicycles New industries: §Bullet Chemical industry §Bullet Electricity and utilities §Bullet Automobile §Bullet Leisure travel §Bullet Professional and leisure sport (CONT’D) Mass marketing: §Bullet Advertising §Bullet Department stores §Bullet Catalogs Industrialization in Prussia: §Bullet Zollverein §Bullet Investment in transportation network §Bullet Adoption of improved methods of manufacturing §Bullet Friedrich List’s National System

6.4 Social Effects of Industrialization

Thematic Focus (SCD): Social Organization and Development — Economic, political, and cultural factors have influenced the form and status of family, class, and social groups in European history, which has, in turn, affected both the individual and society.

Learning Objective Unit 6.E: Explain the causes and consequences of social developments resulting from industrialization.

• KC-3.2.I.A In industrialized areas of Europe (i.e., western and northern Europe), socioeconomic changes created divisions of labor that led to the development of self-conscious classes, including the proletariat and the bourgeoisie.
• KC-3.2.I.B In some of the less industrialized areas of Europe, the dominance of agricultural elites continued into the 20th century.
• KC-3.2.I.C Class identity developed and was reinforced through participation in philanthropic, political, and social associations among the middle classes, and in mutual aid societies and trade unions among the working classes.
• KC-3.2.II.B With migration from rural to urban areas in industrialized regions, cities experienced overcrowding, while affected rural areas suffered declines in available labor as well as weakened communities.
• KC-3.2.III.A Bourgeois families became focused on the nuclear family and the cult of domesticity, with distinct gender roles for men and women.
• KC-3.2.III.B By the end of the century, higher wages, laws restricting the labor of children and women, social welfare programs, improved diet, and increased access to birth control affected the quality of life for the working class.
• KC-3.2.III.C Economic motivations for marriage, while still important for all classes, diminished as the middle-class notion of companionate marriage began to be adopted by the working classes.
• KC-3.2.III.D Leisure time centered increasingly on the family or small groups, concurrent with the development of activities and spaces to use that time.

Illustrative examples:

• Laws restricting the labor of children and women: §Bullet Factory Act of 1833 §Bullet Mines Act of 1842 §Bullet Ten Hours Act of 1847 Leisure time activities and spaces: §Bullet Parks §Bullet Sports clubs and arenas §Bullet Beaches §Bullet Department stores §Bullet Museums §Bullet Theaters §Bullet Opera houses

6.5 The Concert of Europe and European Conservatism

Thematic Focus (SOP): States and Other Institutions of Power — European states and nations developed governmental and civil institutions from 1450 to the present to organize society and consolidate political power, with a variety of social, cultural, and economic effects.

Learning Objective Unit 6.F: Explain how the European political order was maintained and challenged from 1815 to 1914.

• KC-3.3.I.C Conservatives developed a new ideology in support of traditional political and religious authorities, which was based on the idea that human nature was not perfectible.
• KC-3.4.I The Concert of Europe (or Congress System) sought to maintain the status quo through collective action and adherence to conservatism.
  • KC-3.4.I.A Metternich, architect of the Concert of Europe, used it to suppress nationalist and liberal revolutions.
  • KC-3.4.I.B Conservatives reestablished control in many European states and attempted to suppress movements for change and, in some areas, to strengthen adherence to religious authorities.

Illustrative examples:

• Influential conservative influences: §Bullet Edmund Burke §Bullet Joseph de Maistre §Bullet Klemens von Metternich

6.6 Reactions and Revolutions

Thematic Focus (SOP): States and Other Institutions of Power — European states and nations developed governmental and civil institutions from 1450 to the present to organize society and consolidate political power, with a variety of social, cultural, and economic effects.

Learning Objective Unit 6.G: Explain how and why various groups reacted against the existing order from 1815 to 1914.

• KC-3.4.I.C In the first half of the 19th century, revolutionaries attempted to destroy the status quo.
• KC-3.4.I.D The revolutions of 1848, triggered by economic hardship and discontent with the political status quo, challenged conservative politicians and governments and led to the breakdown of the Concert of Europe.
• KC-3.4.II.D In Russia, autocratic leaders pushed through a program of reform and modernization, including the emancipation of the serfs, which gave rise to revolutionary movements and eventually the Russian Revolution of 1905.

Illustrative examples:

• Early 19th-century political revolts: §Bullet War of Greek Independence §Bullet Decembrist revolt in Russia §Bullet Polish rebellion §Bullet July Revolution in France Reformers in Russia: §Bullet Alexander II §Bullet Sergei Witte §Bullet Peter Stolypin

6.7 Ideologies of Change and Reform Movements

Thematic Focus (CID): Cultural and Intellectual Developments — The creation and transmission of knowledge, including the relationship between traditional sources of authority and the development of differing world views, had significant political, intellectual, economic, cultural, and social effects on European and world societies.

Learning Objective Unit 6.H: Explain how and why different intellectual developments challenged the political and social order from 1815 to 1914.

• KC-3.3.I.A Liberals emphasized popular sovereignty, individual rights, and enlightened self-interest but debated the extent to which all groups in society should actively participate in its governance.
• KC-3.3.I.B Radicals in Britain and republicans on the continent demanded universal male suffrage and full citizenship without regard to wealth and property ownership; some argued that such rights should be extended to women.
• KC-3.3.I.D Socialists called for the redistribution of society’s resources and wealth and evolved from a utopian to a Marxist scientific critique of capitalism.
• KC-3.6.II.C Marx’s scientific socialism provided a systematic critique of capitalism and a deterministic analysis of society and historical evolution.
• KC-3.3.I.E Anarchists asserted that all forms of governmental authority were unnecessary and should be overthrown and replaced with a society based on voluntary cooperation.

Illustrative examples:

• Liberals: §Bullet Jeremy Bentham §Bullet Anti-Corn Law League §Bullet John Stuart Mill Advocates of suffrage: §Bullet Chartists §Bullet Flora Tristan Utopian socialists: §Bullet Henri de Saint-Simon §Bullet Charles Fourier §Bullet Robert Owen Marxists: §Bullet Friedrich Engels §Bullet Clara Zetkin §Bullet Rosa Luxemburg Anarchists: §Bullet Mikhail Bakunin §Bullet Georges Sorel

6.8 19th-Century Social Reform

Thematic Focus (SCD): Social Organization and Development — Economic, political, and cultural factors have influenced the form and status of family, class, and social groups in European history, which has, in turn, affected both the individual and society.

Learning Objective Unit 6.I: Explain the various movements and calls for social reform that resulted from intellectual developments from 1815 to 1914.

• KC-3.3.III Political movements and social organizations responded to problems of industrialization.
  • KC-3.3.III.A Mass-based political parties emerged as sophisticated vehicles for social, economic, and political reform.
  • KC-3.3.III.B Workers established labor unions and movements promoting social and economic reforms that also developed into political parties.
  • KC-3.3.III.C Feminists pressed for legal, economic, and political rights for women as well as improved working conditions.
  • KC-3.3.III.D Various nongovernmental reform movements, many of them religious, assisted the poor and worked to end serfdom and slavery.

Illustrative examples:

• Mass-based political parties: §Bullet Conservatives and Liberals in Great Britain §Bullet Conservatives and Socialists in France §Bullet Social Democratic Party in Germany Political parties representing workers: §Bullet German Social Democratic Party §Bullet British Labour Party §Bullet Russian Social Democratic Party Feminists and feminist movements: §Bullet Flora Tristan §Bullet British Women’s Social and Political Union §Bullet Pankhurst family §Bullet Barbara Smith Bodichon Reform movements and social reformers: §Bullet The Sunday School movement §Bullet The temperance movement §Bullet British abolitionist movement §Bullet Josephine Butler

6.9 Institutional Responses and Reform

Thematic Focus (SOP): States and Other Institutions of Power — European states and nations developed governmental and civil institutions from 1450 to the present to organize society and consolidate political power, with a variety of social, cultural, and economic effects.

Learning Objective Unit 6.J: Explain how and why governments and other institutions responded to challenges resulting from industrialization.

• KC-3.3.II.A Liberalism shifted from laissez-faire to interventionist economic and social policies in response to the challenges of industrialization.
• KC-3.3.II.B Reforms transformed unhealthy and overcrowded cities by modernizing infrastructure, regulating public health, reforming prisons, and establishing modern police forces. The reforms were enacted by governments motivated by such forces as public opinion, prominent individuals, and charity organizations.
• KC-3.3.II.C Reformers promoted compulsory public education to advance the goals of public order, nationalism, and economic growth.

Illustrative examples:

• Modernizing infrastructure: §Bullet Sewage and water systems §Bullet Public lighting §Bullet Public housing §Bullet Urban redesign §Bullet Parks §Bullet Public transportation §Bullet Edwin Chadwick §Bullet Georges Haussmann

6.10 Causation in the Age of Industrialization

Learning Objective Unit 6.K: Explain the influence of innovations and technological developments in Europe from 1815 to 1914.

• KC-3.1 The Industrial Revolution spread from Great Britain to the continent, where the state played a greater role in promoting industry.
  • KC-3.1.I Great Britain established its industrial dominance through the mechanization of textile production, iron and steel production, and new transportation systems in conjunction with uniquely favorable political and social climates.
  • KC-3.1.II Following the British example, industrialization took root in continental Europe, sometimes with state sponsorship.
• KC-3.2 The experiences of everyday life were shaped by industrialization, depending on the level of industrial development in a particular location.
  • KC-3.2.I Industrialization promoted the development of new classes in the industrial regions of Europe.
  • KC-3.2.II Europe experienced rapid population growth and urbanization, leading to social dislocations.
  • KC-3.2.III Over time, the Industrial Revolution altered the family structure and relations for bourgeois and working-class families.
• KC-3.3 Political revolutions and the complications resulting from industrialization triggered a range of ideological, governmental, and collective responses.
  • KC-3.3.I Ideologies developed and took root throughout society as a response to industrial and political revolutions.
  • KC-3.3.II Governments, at times based on the pressure of political or social organizations, responded to problems created or exacerbated by industrialization.

7.1 Contextualizing 19th-Century Perspectives and Political Developments

Learning Objective Unit 7.A: Explain the context in which nationalistic and imperialistic sentiments developed in Europe from 1815 to 1914.

• KC-3.4 European states struggled to maintain international stability in an age of nationalism and revolutions.
  • KC-3.4.II The breakdown of the Concert of Europe opened the door for movements of national unification in Italy and Germany as well as liberal reforms elsewhere.
  • KC-3.4.III The unification of Italy and Germany transformed the European balance of power and led to efforts to construct a new diplomatic order.
• KC-3.5 A variety of motives and methods led to the intensification of European global control and increased tensions among the Great Powers.
  • KC-3.5.II Industrial and technological developments (e.g., the second industrial revolution) facilitated European control of global empires.
• KC-3.6 European ideas and culture expressed a tension between objectivity and scientific realism on one hand, and subjectivity and individual expression on the other.
  • KC-3.6.II Following the revolutions of 1848, Europe turned toward a realist and materialist worldview.

7.2 Nationalism

Thematic Focus (NEI): National and European Identity — Definitions and perceptions of regional, cultural, national, and European identity have developed and been challenged over time, with varied and often profound effects on the political, social, and cultural order in Europe.

Learning Objective Unit 7.B: Explain how the development and spread of nationalism affected Europe from 1815 to 1914.

• KC-3.3.I.F Nationalists encouraged loyalty to the nation in a variety of ways, including romantic idealism, liberal reform, political unification, racialism with a concomitant anti-Semitism, and chauvinism justifying national aggrandizement.
• KC-3.3.I.G While during the 19th century western European Jews became more socially and politically acculturated, Zionism, a form of Jewish nationalism, developed late in the century as a response to growing anti-Semitism throughout Europe.
• KC-3.4.II.B A new generation of conservative leaders, including Napoleon III, Cavour, and Bismarck, used popular nationalism to create or strengthen the state.
• KC-3.4.II.C The creation of the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary, which recognized the political power of the largest ethnic minority, was an attempt to stabilize the state by reconfiguring national unity.

Illustrative examples:

• Nationalists: §Bullet J. G. Fichte §Bullet Grimm Brothers §Bullet Giuseppe Mazzini §Bullet Pan-Slavists Anti-Semitism: §Bullet Dreyfus affair §Bullet Christian Social Party in Germany §Bullet Karl Lueger, mayor of Vienna Zionists: §Bullet Theodor Herzl

7.3 National Unification and Diplomatic Tensions

Thematic Focus (NEI): National and European Identity — Definitions and perceptions of regional, cultural, national, and European identity have developed and been challenged over time, with varied and often profound effects on the political, social, and cultural order in Europe.

Thematic Focus (SOP): States and Other Institutions of Power — European states and nations developed governmental and civil institutions from 1450 to the present to organize society and consolidate political power, with a variety of social, cultural, and economic effects.

Learning Objective Unit 7.C: Explain the factors that resulted in Italian unification and German unification.

• KC-3.4.II.A The Crimean War demonstrated the weakness of the Ottoman Empire and contributed to the breakdown of the Concert of Europe, thereby creating the conditions in which Italy and Germany could be unified after centuries of fragmentation.
• KC-3.4.III.A Cavour’s diplomatic strategies, combined with the popular Garibaldi’s military campaigns, led to the unification of Italy.
• KC-3.4.III.B Bismarck used Realpolitik, employing diplomacy, industrialized warfare, weaponry, and the manipulation of democratic mechanisms to unify Germany.

Learning Objective Unit 7.D: Explain how nationalist sentiment and political alliances led to tension between and among European powers from 1815 to 1914.

• KC-3.4.III.C After 1871, Bismarck attempted to maintain the balance of power through a complex system of alliances directed at isolating France.
• KC-3.4.III.D Bismarck’s dismissal in 1890 eventually led to a system of mutually antagonistic alliances and heightened international tensions.
• KC-3.4.III.E Nationalist tensions in the Balkans drew the Great Powers into a series of crises, leading up to World War I.

Illustrative examples:

• Bismarck’s alliances: §Bullet Three Emperors’ League §Bullet Triple Alliance §Bullet Reinsurance Treaty Nationalist tensions in the Balkans: §Bullet Congress of Berlin in 1878 §Bullet Growing influence of Serbia §Bullet Bosnia-Herzegovina annexation crisis (1908) §Bullet First Balkan War §Bullet Second Balkan War

7.4 Darwinism, Social Darwinism

Thematic Focus (TSI): Technological and Scientific Innovation — Scientific and technological innovations have increased efficiency, improved daily life, and shaped human development and interactions, having both intended and unintended consequences.

Learning Objective Unit 7.E: Explain how Darwin’s theories influenced scientific and social developments from 1815 to 1914.

• KC-3.6.II.B Charles Darwin provided a scientific and material account of biological change and the development of human beings as a species, and inadvertently, a justification for racialist theories that became known as Social Darwinism.

7.5 The Age of Progress and Modernity

Thematic Focus (TSI): Technological and Scientific Innovation — Scientific and technological innovations have increased efficiency, improved daily life, and shaped human development and interactions, having both intended and unintended consequences.

Learning Objective Unit 7.F: Explain how science and other intellectual disciplines developed and changed throughout the period from 1815 to 1914.

• KC-3.6.II.A Positivism, or the philosophy that science alone provides knowledge, emphasized the rational and scientific analysis of nature and human affairs.
• KC-3.6.III In the later 19th century, a new relativism in values and the loss of confidence in the objectivity of knowledge led to modernism in intellectual and cultural life.
  • KC-3.6.III.A Philosophy largely moved from rational interpretations of nature and human society to an emphasis on irrationality and impulse, a view that contributed to the belief that conflict and struggle led to progress.
  • KC-3.6.III.B Freudian psychology offered a new account of human nature that emphasized the role of the irrational and the struggle between the conscious and subconscious.
  • KC-3.6.III.C Developments in the natural sciences, such as quantum mechanics and Einstein’s theory of relativity, undermined the primacy of Newtonian physics as an objective description of nature.

Illustrative examples:

• Philosophers who emphasized the irrational: §Bullet Friedrich Nietzsche §Bullet Georges Sorel §Bullet Henri Bergson Scientists who undermined the notion that Newtonian physics provided an objective knowledge of nature: §Bullet Max Planck