| Enduring Understanding | Learning Objective | Essential Knowledge |
|---|---|---|
IMP-1 | IMP-1.A |
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AP 人文地理
AP 人文地理涵盖地理思维、人口与迁移、文化模式与过程、政治模式与过程、农业与乡村土地利用、 城市与城市土地利用,以及工业与经济发展。它常被当作第一门 AP 课程,但"容易"的名声具有 误导性。
词汇量确实很大,但只写定义得分很低。自由作答使用一套精确的动词阶梯——define、describe、 explain、compare——每一级要求的内容不同;该描述却去解释是浪费时间,该解释却只描述则一分 不得。
几乎所有高分答案都会点出真实地名。"一些国家"不算例证;写出具体国家、城市或地区并附上相关 细节才算。请围绕各单元准备一小批你真正熟悉的例子,而不是考场上临时回忆。本站笔记按 College Board 的单元编排,每单元一页,模型均已绘制,并为每个概念附上具名实例。
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1
地理思维
1.1
地图导论
大纲
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
地理学是研究事物在哪里以及为什么在那里。它最基本的工具是地图(map)——地球表面某一部分的一幅压平的图片。
地图有两个大家族。一张参考地图(reference map)显示固定的位置——海岸线、边界、道路、城市(一本道路地图集或谷歌地图)。一张专题地图(thematic map)显示一个变量如何跨空间变化——降雨、收入,或人口密度。AP 人文地理不断地使用专题地图。
参考地图显示位置;专题地图显示一个变量如何在空间上变化 因为地球是一个球体而一张地图是平的,每张地图都使用一个把地球拉伸到纸上的投影(projection)。投影总是扭曲(distort)某样东西——形状、面积、距离,或方向。著名的墨卡托(Mercator)投影保持方向正确(对航海有用)但使像格陵兰这样的高纬度地方看起来太大。没有完美的投影;一个制图师选择一个适合地图目的的。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 map 地图 dì tú reference map 参考地图 cān kǎo dì tú thematic map 专题地图 zhuān tí dì tú projection 投影 tóu yǐng distort 扭曲 niǔ qū 1.2
地理数据
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge IMP-1
Geographers use maps and data to depict relationships of time, space, and scale.IMP-1.B
Identify different methods of geographic data collection.- IMP-1.B.1 Data may be gathered in the field by organizations or by individuals.
- IMP-1.B.2 Geospatial technologies include geographic information systems (GIS), satellite navigation systems, remote sensing, and online mapping and visualization.
- IMP-1.B.3 Spatial information can come from written accounts in the form of field observations, media reports, travel narratives, policy documents, personal interviews, landscape analysis, and photographic interpretation.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
地理数据(geographic data)是任何与一个位置绑定的信息。地理学家在实地(计数、勘测、访谈)并用技术远程收集它。
你必须知道的关键地理空间技术(geospatial technologies):
- GIS(地理信息系统,Geographic Information System)——层叠许多种空间数据以便模式能被比较的软件。
- GPS(卫星导航)——精确定位地球上的确切位置。
- 遥感(remote sensing)——在不接触地面的情况下从卫星或飞机收集数据。
数据也来自书面来源:实地观察、媒体报道、旅行写作、政策文件、访谈和照片。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Geographic data 地理数据 dì lǐ shù jù geospatial technologies 地理空间技术 dì lǐ kōng jiān jì shù GIS 地理信息系统 dì lǐ xìn xī xì tǒng Remote sensing 遥感 yáo gǎn 1.3
地理数据的力量
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge IMP-1
Geographers use maps and data to depict relationships of time, space, and scale.IMP-1.C
Explain the geographical effects of decisions made using geographical information.- IMP-1.C.1 Geospatial and geographical data, including census data and satellite imagery, are used at all scales for personal, business and organizational, and governmental decision- making purposes.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
数据强大,因为它驱动决定。企业用它来选择商店位置、政府用普查数据来规划学校和道路,而援助机构用它在一场灾害后送帮助。
但数据从不中立。谁收集它、他们用哪些类别,以及一张地图如何被绘制,都能塑造信息。一张地图能告知——或它能误导——所以一个好的地理学家总是问数据来自哪里以及它遗漏什么。
1.4
空间概念
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge PSO-1
Geographers analyze relationships among and between places to reveal important spatial patterns.PSO-1.A
Define major geographic concepts that illustrate spatial relationships.- PSO-1.A.1 Spatial concepts include absolute and relative location, space, place, flows, distance decay, time-space compression, and pattern.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
距离衰减 地理学家用一套精确的词汇描述位置和格局。
- 绝对位置(absolute location)是一个确切的地址——纬度和经度。相对位置(relative location)通过它附近的什么来描述一个地方("河的北面")。
- 绝对距离(absolute distance)以千米测量;相对距离(relative distance)以时间、成本或努力测量。
- 时空压缩(space–time compression)是随着交通和通信改善,地方之间感受到的距离的缩小。
- 距离衰减(distance decay)意味着两个地方之间的相互作用随着它们之间的距离增长而减弱。
点能被聚集、分散,或沿一条线排列——空间格局本身就是数据 一个空间格局(spatial pattern)是事物如何排列:聚集(clustered)(挤在一起)、分散(dispersed)(分开),或线性(linear)(沿一条线,例如一条道路)。读格局是解释它为什么存在的第一步。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Absolute location 绝对位置 jué duì wèi zhì Relative location 相对位置 xiāng duì wèi zhì Space–time compression 时空压缩 shí kōng yā suō Distance decay 距离衰减 jù lí shuāi jiǎn spatial pattern 空间格局 kōng jiān gé jú clustered 聚集 jù jí dispersed 分散 fēn sàn 1.5
人类与环境的相互作用
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge PSO-1
Geographers analyze relationships among and between places to reveal important spatial patterns.PSO-1.B
Explain how major geographic concepts illustrate spatial relationships.- PSO-1.B.1 Concepts of nature and society include sustainability, natural resources, and land use.
- PSO-1.B.2 Theories regarding the interaction of the natural environment with human societies have evolved from environmental determinism to possibilism.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
人和环境互相塑造。三个较旧的思想描述这个:
- 环境决定论(environmental determinism)——(现在被否定的)物理环境决定一个文化如何发展的主张。
- 可能论(possibilism)——被接受的观点,即环境设定限制,但人们用技术和文化选择如何回应。
文化景观(cultural landscape)——建在土地上的农场、城市和道路——是这种相互作用可见的结果。可持续性问人们如何能使用自然资源而不用尽它们。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Environmental determinism 环境决定论 huán jìng jué dìng lùn Possibilism 可能论 kě néng lùn cultural landscape 文化景观 wén huà jǐng guān 1.6
分析尺度
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge PSO-1
Geographers analyze relationships among and between places to reveal important spatial patterns.PSO-1.C
Define scales of analysis used by geographers.- PSO-1.C.1 Scales of analysis include global, regional, national, and local.
PSO-1.D
Explain what scales of analysis reveal.- PSO-1.D.1 Patterns and processes at different scales reveal variations in, and different interpretations of, data.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
分析尺度(scale of analysis)是你看数据的层级——全球、区域、国家或地方。同一个格局在不同的尺度看起来能完全不同。
同一个地方嵌套在越来越大的尺度里——你选择的尺度改变你看到的格局 例如,一个国家可能在国家尺度看起来富有,却在地方尺度包含很穷的社区。放大或缩小——改变尺度——揭示之前隐藏的格局。考试问题常常要求你"在各种尺度上"解释一个过程。
Worked example(一道真实的 AP 考题)。 "这幅地图聚焦于区域尺度。解释从一幅区域尺度地图得出国家尺度结论的一个可能局限。"(2025)满分答案:"这幅地图只显示一个区域,所以它的格局可能不代表整个国家——其他区域可能看起来很不同,所以在区域尺度得出的结论在国家尺度上会不准确。" 命令词 Explain(解释)要求推理:说出局限并且说明为什么改变尺度会改变格局。只写"尺度不同"不能得分。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Scale of analysis 分析尺度 fēn xī chǐ dù 1.7
区域分析
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge SPS-1
Geographers analyze complex issues and relationships with a distinctively spatial perspective.SPS-1.A
Describe different ways that geographers define regions.- SPS-1.A.1 Regions are defined on the basis of one or more unifying characteristics or on patterns of activity.
- SPS-1.A.2 Types of regions include formal, functional, and perceptual/vernacular.
- SPS-1.A.3 Regional boundaries are transitional and often contested and overlapping.
- SPS-1.A.4 Geographers apply regional analysis at local, national, and global scales.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
一个区域(region)是一个有一个或更多共享特征使它与周围区域不同的地区。地理学家用三种类型:
- 正式(均质)区域(formal (uniform) region)——每个人共享一个可测量的特征(一个国家、一个小麦种植带、一个语言区)。
- 功能(节点)区域(functional (nodal) region)——围绕一个中央节点组织,像一座城市和它的通勤区或一家披萨店的送货区。
- 感知(方言)区域(perceptual (vernacular) region)——由人们的感觉和信念定义,有模糊的边界("美国南方"、"中东")。
区域由地理学家制造,不是在自然里找到的——所以它们的边界能被争论,这正是为什么它们对分析有用。
探索Sort each example into the right kind of region
A formal region shares one measured trait, a functional region is organised around a node, and a perceptual region is defined by people's feelings.
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 region 区域 qū yù Formal (uniform) region 均质区域 jūn zhì qū yù Functional (nodal) region 功能区域 gōng néng qū yù Perceptual (vernacular) region 感知区域 gǎn zhī qū yù 1.7
考试技巧
- 总是命名一个地图投影的取舍:它保留什么与扭曲什么(墨卡托保持方向但夸大面积)。
- 陈述数据是定量还是定性的,并把一个来源(GIS、GPS、遥感、普查)匹配到它的用途。
- 把绝对与相对位置区分开,并在任何流动答案里使用距离衰减和时空压缩。
- 注意分析尺度:一个国家平均值隐藏地方变化——明确地说出来。
- 把每个区域分类为正式、功能或感知,并用定义特征论证它。
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2
人口与迁移的格局与过程
2.1 2.2
人口分布
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge PSO-2
Understanding where and how people live is essential to understanding global cultural, political, and economic patterns.PSO-2.A
Identify the factors that influence the distribution of human populations at different scales.- PSO-2.A.1 Physical factors (e.g., climate, landforms, water bodies) and human factors (e.g., culture, economics, history, politics) influence the distribution of population.
- PSO-2.A.2 Factors that illustrate patterns of population distribution vary according to the scale of analysis.
PSO-2.B
Define methods geographers use to calculate population density.- PSO-2.B.1 The three methods for calculating population density are arithmetic, physiological, and agricultural.
PSO-2.C
Explain the differences between and the impact of methods used to calculate population density.- PSO-2.C.1 The method used to calculate population density reveals different information about the pressure the population exerts on the land.
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge PSO-2
Understanding where and how people live is essential to understanding global cultural, political, and economic patterns.PSO-2.D
Explain how population distribution and density affect society and the environment.- PSO-2.D.1 Population distribution and density affect political, economic, and social processes, including the provision of services such as medical care.
- PSO-2.D.2 Population distribution and density affect the environment and natural resources; this is known as carrying capacity.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
人在地球上分布得很不均匀。人口分布(population distribution)描述人们住在哪里;人口密度(population density)测量一个地方多拥挤。大多数人聚集在少数有利的地方:中纬度、低洼的土地、海岸,和有水和肥沃土壤的河谷。
东京一个挤满人的人行横道:城市把人拉进一小块地方,形成极高的人口密度 地理学家用三种密度衡量:
- 算术密度(arithmetic density)——总人数 ÷ 总土地面积。
- 生理密度(physiological density)——人数 ÷ 可耕(arable)(可种植)土地的面积;对食物供应压力的一个更好的向导。
- 农业密度(agricultural density)——农民 ÷ 可耕地;一个低值暗示更高效、机械化的农业。
不均匀的分布造成后果:拥挤的地区使住房、水和服务紧张,而空的地区可能难以提供道路和学校。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Population distribution 人口分布 rén kǒu fēn bù population density 人口密度 rén kǒu mì dù Arithmetic density 算术密度 suàn shù mì dù Physiological density 生理密度 shēng lǐ mì dù Agricultural density 农业密度 nóng yè mì dù 2.3
人口构成
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge PSO-2
Understanding where and how people live is essential to understanding global cultural, political, and economic patterns.PSO-2.E
Describe elements of population composition used by geographers.- PSO-2.E.1 Patterns of age structure and sex ratio vary across different regions and may be mapped and analyzed at different scales.
PSO-2.F
Explain ways that geographers depict and analyze population composition.- PSO-2.F.1 Population pyramids are used to assess population growth and decline and to predict markets for goods and services.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
解读人口金字塔 人口构成(population composition)是一个人口按年龄和性别的组成。它显示在一个人口金字塔(population pyramid)上——男性和女性以五年年龄组(age cohorts)的背对背条形图。
一个宽的基座意味着快速增长;直的侧面意味着缓慢增长;一个窄的基座意味着衰退 - 一个宽的基座意味着高出生率和快速增长(许多年轻人)。
- 直的侧面意味着缓慢、稳定的增长。
- 一个窄的基座带一个宽的中间意味着一个老龄化、收缩的人口。
抚养比(dependency ratio)把受抚养者(15 岁以下和 64 岁以上)与工作年龄人口比较——一个高的比使支持他们的工人紧张。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Population composition 人口构成 rén kǒu gòu chéng population pyramid 人口金字塔 rén kǒu jīn zì tǎ age cohorts 年龄组 nián líng zǔ dependency ratio 抚养比 fǔ yǎng bǐ 2.4
人口动态
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge IMP-2
Changes in population are due to mortality, fertility, and migration, which are influenced by the interplay of environmental, economic, cultural, and political factors.IMP-2.A
Explain factors that account for contemporary and historical trends in population growth and decline.- IMP-2.A.1 Demographic factors that determine a population’s growth and decline are fertility, mortality, and migration.
- IMP-2.A.2 Geographers use the rate of natural increase and population-doubling time to explain population growth and decline.
- IMP-2.A.3 Social, cultural, political, and economic factors influence fertility, mortality, and migration rates.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
人口通过出生、死亡和迁移变化。关键率(每年每 1,000 人):
- 粗出生率(CBR)(crude birth rate)和粗死亡率(CDR)(crude death rate)。
- 自然增长率(RNI)(rate of natural increase)= (CBR − CDR) ÷ 10,作为一个百分比——它忽略迁移。
- 总和生育率(TFR)(total fertility rate)——每个妇女的平均孩子数;约 2.1 是更替水平(replacement level)。
倍增时间(doubling time)(一个人口翻倍的年数)≈ 70 ÷ RNI%。生育率的小变化有巨大的长期效应。
Worked example(一道真实的 AP 考题)。 "解释为什么同一个国家城市地区的自然增长率(RNI)可能与农村地区显著不同的一个原因。"(2023)满分答案:"在城市里,生活成本——住房、教育、托儿——更高,所以城市家庭往往生育更少的孩子。更少的出生降低了粗出生率,所以城市的 RNI 低于农村的 RNI,而农村的孩子仍帮助农活。" 注意答案的结构:命令词 Explain(解释)要求一条因果链,所以你必须说出原因并且把它一路追到 RNI。只给一个事实——"城市很贵"——得零分。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Crude birth rate (CBR) 粗出生率 cū chū shēng lǜ crude death rate (CDR) 粗死亡率 cū sǐ wáng lǜ Rate of natural increase (RNI) 自然增长率 zì rán zēng zhǎng lǜ Total fertility rate (TFR) 总和生育率 zǒng hé shēng yù lǜ replacement level 更替水平 gēng tì shuǐ píng doubling time 倍增时间 bèi zēng shí jiān 2.5
人口转变模型
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge IMP-2
Changes in population are due to mortality, fertility, and migration, which are influenced by the interplay of environmental, economic, cultural, and political factors.IMP-2.B
Explain theories of population growth and decline.- IMP-2.B.1 The demographic transition model can be used to explain population change over time.
- IMP-2.B.2 The epidemiological transition explains causes of changing death rates.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
人口转变模型 人口转变模型(DTM)(Demographic Transition Model)显示出生率和死亡率随着一个国家发展如何变化,通过五个阶段。
死亡率先下降,然后出生率;它们之间的差距是人口爆炸 - 阶段 1 ——高的、波动的 CBR 和 CDR;缓慢增长(前工业)。
- 阶段 2 —— CDR 下降(更好的食物、医药、卫生设施)而 CBR 保持高;人口爆炸。
- 阶段 3 —— CBR 下降(城市化、教育、女性工作);增长减慢。
- 阶段 4 ——低 CBR 和 CDR;人口稳定而大。
- 阶段 5 —— CBR 下降到 CDR 以下;人口衰退并老龄化。
相连的流行病学转变(epidemiological transition)描述随着一个国家经过 DTM,死亡的主要原因如何从传染病转向慢性、退行性疾病。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Demographic Transition Model (DTM) 人口转变模型 rén kǒu zhuǎn biàn mó xíng epidemiological transition 流行病学转变 liú xíng bìng xué zhuǎn biàn 2.6
马尔萨斯理论
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge IMP-2
Changes in population are due to mortality, fertility, and migration, which are influenced by the interplay of environmental, economic, cultural, and political factors.IMP-2.B
Explain theories of population growth and decline.- IMP-2.B.3 Malthusian theory and its critiques are used to analyze population change and its consequences.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
马尔萨斯理论及其批评 1798 年托马斯·马尔萨斯(Thomas Malthus)论证人口指数式(exponentially)增长而食物供应只线性(linearly)增长,所以人口会超过食物并被饥荒、疾病和战争抑制。
批评者说马尔萨斯低估了技术:绿色革命和现代农业巨大地提高了食物产出。新马尔萨斯主义者(neo-Malthusians)更新这个担忧以包括水、能源和其他有限资源。这个辩论是一个最爱的考试提示。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 exponentially 指数式 zhǐ shù shì linearly 线性 xiàn xìng Neo-Malthusians 新马尔萨斯主义者 xīn mǎ ěr sà sī zhǔ yì zhě 2.7
人口政策
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge SPS-2
Changes in population have long- and short-term effects on a place’s economy, culture, and politics.SPS-2.A
Explain the intent and effects of various population and immigration policies on population size and composition.- SPS-2.A.1 Types of population policies include those that promote or discourage population growth, such as pronatalist, antinatalist, and immigration policies.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
政府试图用政策影响人口增长:
- 鼓励生育(pro-natalist)政策在人口老龄化或收缩的地方鼓励生育(现金奖励、育儿假、托儿)——例如法国、日本。
- 限制生育(anti-natalist)政策在增长被视为太快的地方阻止生育——例如印度的计划生育运动。
政策有意想不到的后果:强的限制生育政策能使性别比例失衡或加速老龄化,后来需要一个鼓励生育的回应。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Pro-natalist 鼓励生育 gǔ lì shēng yù Anti-natalist 限制生育 xiàn zhì shēng yù 2.8 2.9
妇女与人口变化
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge SPS-2
Changes in population have long- and short-term effects on a place’s economy, culture, and politics.SPS-2.B
Explain how the changing role of females has demographic consequences in different parts of the world.- SPS-2.B.1 Changing social values and access to education, employment, health care, and contraception have reduced fertility rates in most parts of the world.
- SPS-2.B.2 Changing social, economic, and political roles for females have influenced patterns of fertility, mortality, and migration, as illustrated by Ravenstein’s laws of migration.
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge SPS-2
Changes in population have long- and short-term effects on a place’s economy, culture, and politics.SPS-2.C
Explain the causes and consequences of an aging population.- SPS-2.C.1 Population aging is determined by birth and death rates and life expectancy.
- SPS-2.C.2 An aging population has political, social, and economic consequences, including the dependency ratio.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
女性的地位是生育率最强的驱动力之一。随着女性教育和就业上升,女性结婚更晚并有更少的孩子,所以生育率下降——国家经过 DTM 的一个关键原因。
在另一端,人口老龄化(aging populations)(65 岁以上上升的份额)带来它们自己的挑战:更高的养老金和医疗成本、一个收缩的劳动力,和一个上升的抚养比。国家用更晚的退休、移民,或鼓励生育政策来回应。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 aging populations 人口老龄化 rén kǒu lǎo líng huà 2.10 2.11
迁移的原因
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge IMP-2
Changes in population are due to mortality, fertility, and migration, which are influenced by the interplay of environmental, economic, cultural, and political factors.IMP-2.C
Explain how different causal factors encourage migration.- IMP-2.C.1 Migration is commonly divided into push factors and pull factors.
- IMP-2.C.2 Push/pull factors and intervening opportunities/obstacles can be cultural, demographic, economic, environmental, or political.
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge IMP-2
Changes in population are due to mortality, fertility, and migration, which are influenced by the interplay of environmental, economic, cultural, and political factors.IMP-2.D
Describe types of forced and voluntary migration.- IMP-2.D.1 Forced migrations include slavery and events that produce refugees, internally displaced persons, and asylum seekers.
- IMP-2.D.2 Types of voluntary migrations include transnational, transhumance, internal, chain, step, guest worker, and rural-to-urban.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
迁移(migration)是一个永久移动到一个新位置。它由推力(push factors)(离开的理由:战争、贫困、灾害)和拉力(pull factors)(到达的理由:工作、安全、家庭)驱动。
迁移决定跨越一个中间障碍权衡推力与拉力 - 自愿迁移(voluntary migration)是出于选择,通常出于经济原因。
- 强迫迁移(forced migration)是违背一个人的意愿——逃离危险的难民(refugees),或被灾害流离失所的人。
- 拉文斯坦定律(Ravenstein's laws)描述格局:大多数移民移动短距离、分步,而且主要被经济拉力吸引。
迁移能是国际(在国家之间)或国内(在一个国家内,例如从农村到城市)。
Immigrants arriving in a new city: migration redistributes population and reshapes places 探索Push factor or pull factor?
A push factor drives people away from the origin; a pull factor draws them toward the destination.
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Migration 迁移 qiān yí push factors 推力 tuī lì pull factors 拉力 lā lì Voluntary migration 自愿迁移 zì yuàn qiān yí Forced migration 强迫迁移 qiǎng pò qiān yí refugees 难民 nàn mín 2.12
迁移的影响
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge IMP-2
Changes in population are due to mortality, fertility, and migration, which are influenced by the interplay of environmental, economic, cultural, and political factors.IMP-2.E
Explain historical and contemporary geographic effects of migration.- IMP-2.E.1 Migration has political, economic, and cultural effects.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
迁移重塑来源地和目的地两者。
- 目的地获得工人和文化多样性,但可能面对住房和服务的压力和社会紧张。
- 来源地可能失去熟练工人(一次人才外流(brain drain))但获得侨汇(remittances)——移民寄回家的钱,对许多国家是一个主要的收入来源。
- 迁移改变两个地方的年龄和性别结构,因为移民常常是年轻的工作年龄成人。
New arrivals reshape cities: migration changes labour markets, culture and demographics in destination places 词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 brain drain 人才外流 rén cái wài liú remittances 侨汇 qiáo huì 2.12
考试技巧
- 计算 RNI = (CBR − CDR) ÷ 10 作为一个百分比,并把倍增时间读作约 70 ÷ RNI。
- 把一个人口金字塔的形状与生育率和 DTM 阶段联系起来——一个宽的基座意味着阶段 2。
- 记住死亡率在出生率之前下降;那就是为什么阶段 2 增长最快。
- 把推力与拉力、强迫与自愿分开;一个难民跨越一个边界,一个 IDP(境内流离失所者)不跨越。
- 权衡迁移效应:侨汇帮助来源地,但人才外流和老龄化伤害它。
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3
文化的格局与过程
3.1
文化导论
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge PSO-3
Cultural practices vary across geographical locations because of physical geography and available resources.PSO-3.A
Define the characteristics, attitudes, and traits that influence geographers when they study culture.- PSO-3.A.1 Culture comprises the shared practices, technologies, attitudes, and behaviors transmitted by a society.
- PSO-3.A.2 Cultural traits include such things as food preferences, architecture, and land use.
- PSO-3.A.3 Cultural relativism and ethnocentrism are different attitudes toward cultural difference.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
文化(culture)是一群人共享的一套信念、价值、实践和物品。地理学家把它分成两部分:
- 物质文化(material culture)——人们制造和使用的东西(衣服、工具、食物、建筑、艺术)。
- 非物质文化(nonmaterial culture)——人们持有的思想(语言、宗教、价值、规则)。
一个文化特征(cultural trait)是文化的一个单一元素(用筷子);一组相连的特征是一个文化丛(cultural complex)。文化相对论(cultural relativism)是用一个文化自己的标准而不是你自己的来评判它的做法。
Chinatown signs: culture is shared practices, values and symbols that people learn and pass on 词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Culture 文化 wén huà Material culture 物质文化 wù zhì wén huà Nonmaterial culture 非物质文化 fēi wù zhì wén huà cultural trait 文化特征 wén huà tè zhēng Cultural relativism 文化相对论 wén huà xiāng duì lùn 3.2
文化景观
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge PSO-3
Cultural practices vary across geographical locations because of physical geography and available resources.PSO-3.B
Describe the characteristics of cultural landscapes.- PSO-3.B.1 Cultural landscapes are combinations of physical features, agricultural and industrial practices, religious and linguistic characteristics, evidence of sequent occupancy, and other expressions of culture including traditional and postmodern architecture and land-use patterns.
PSO-3.C
Explain how landscape features and land and resource use reflect cultural beliefs and identities.- PSO-3.C.1 Attitudes toward ethnicity and gender, including the role of women in the workforce; ethnic neighborhoods; and indigenous communities and lands help shape the use of space in a given society.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
文化景观(cultural landscape)是人类活动在土地上可见的印记——建筑、农场、道路、标志和纪念碑。它记录制造它的人们的价值。
- 承继占用(sequent occupance)是每个住在一个地方的群体在景观上留下一层的思想,所以景观显示它的整个历史。
- 族裔聚居区(ethnic enclaves)、宗教建筑,和标志上的语言都是谁住在那里以及他们珍视什么的可读线索。
西雅图的一座唐人街牌楼:建筑和双语标志标出一个族裔聚居区,是一个群体在文化景观上清晰的印记 
Chinatown street signs: cultural landscapes and diffusion leave lasting patterns in cities 词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 cultural landscape 文化景观 wén huà jǐng guān Sequent occupance 承继占用 chéng jì zhàn yòng Ethnic enclaves 族裔聚居区 zú yì jù jū qū Diffusion 扩散 kuò sàn 3.3
文化格局
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge PSO-3
Cultural practices vary across geographical locations because of physical geography and available resources.PSO-3.D
Explain patterns and landscapes of language, religion, ethnicity, and gender.- PSO-3.D.1 Regional patterns of language, religion, and ethnicity contribute to a sense of place, enhance placemaking, and shape the global cultural landscape.
- PSO-3.D.2 Language, ethnicity, and religion are factors in creating centripetal and centrifugal forces.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
文化以格局跨空间扩散。关键思想:
- 向心力(centripetal forces)把一个群体拉到一起(一个共享的语言或宗教);离心力(centrifugal forces)把它推开。
- 文化适应(acculturation)(采用另一个文化的一些特征同时保持你自己的)、同化(assimilation)(完全融入另一个文化),和融合(syncretism)(两个文化融合成某种新的东西)描述文化在接触时如何变化。
- 一门通用语(lingua franca)是说不同第一语言的群体之间使用的一门共同语言。
文化适应保持你自己的文化,同化取代它,融合把两者混成新的东西 Worked example(一道真实的 AP 考题)。 "解释食物偏好如何能是一个文化特征。"(2023)满分答案:"许多菜肴使用某一个文化群体独有的配料或烹饪方式——例如一道国菜——所以选择和吃那种食物表达了对该群体的归属,这就是使它成为文化特征的原因。" 命令词 Explain(解释)需要一个联系,而不是一个定义:把食物偏好与共享文化的概念连接起来。只列出食物得零分。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Centripetal forces 向心力 xiàng xīn lì centrifugal forces 离心力 lí xīn lì Acculturation 文化适应 wén huà shì yìng assimilation 同化 tóng huà syncretism 融合 róng hé lingua franca 通用语 tōng yòng yǔ 3.4
扩散的类型
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge IMP-3
The interaction of people contributes to the spread of cultural practices.IMP-3.A
Define the types of diffusion.- IMP-3.A.1 Relocation and expansion—including contagious, hierarchical, and stimulus expansion—are types of diffusion.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
四种扩散类型 扩散(diffusion)是一个文化特征从它的源地(hearth)(起源地)向新地区的传播。有两个大家族。
迁移扩散随移民移动;扩展扩散向外传播同时留在源头 - 迁移扩散(relocation diffusion)——特征随着人们迁移而移动,所以它出现在新地方但可能在源头消退。
- 扩展扩散(expansion diffusion)——特征向外传播同时在源头保持强。它有三种类型:
- 传染扩散(contagious)——人对人地传播给附近的人(像一个病毒视频)。
- 等级扩散(hierarchical)——先从大的、重要的地方跳到其他大的地方(来自大城市的一个时尚)。
- 刺激扩散(stimulus)——即使确切的特征改变,底层的思想也传播(一个全球品牌本地地调整它的菜单)。
探索Which type of diffusion is it?
Relocation diffusion moves with migrants; contagious spreads to everyone nearby; hierarchical jumps between big places; stimulus spreads the idea while the form changes.
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 hearth 源地 yuán dì Relocation diffusion 迁移扩散 qiān yí kuò sàn Expansion diffusion 扩展扩散 kuò zhǎn kuò sàn Contagious 传染扩散 chuán rǎn kuò sàn Hierarchical 等级扩散 děng jí kuò sàn Stimulus 刺激扩散 cì jī kuò sàn 3.5 3.6
扩散的历史原因
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge SPS-3
Cultural ideas, practices, and innovations change or disappear over time.SPS-3.A
Explain how historical processes impact current cultural patterns.- SPS-3.A.1 Interactions between and among cultural traits and larger global forces can lead to new forms of cultural expression; for example, creolization and lingua franca.
- SPS-3.A.2 Colonialism, imperialism, and trade helped to shape patterns and practices of culture.
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge SPS-3
Cultural ideas, practices, and innovations change or disappear over time.SPS-3.A
Explain how historical processes impact current cultural patterns.- SPS-3.A.3 Cultural ideas and practices are socially constructed and change through both small-scale and large-scale processes such as urbanization and globalization. These processes come to bear on culture through media, technological change, politics, economics, and social relationships.
- SPS-3.A.4 Communication technologies, such as the internet and the time-space convergence, are reshaping and accelerating interactions among people; changing cultural practices, as in the increasing use of English and the loss of indigenous languages; and creating cultural convergence and divergence.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
扩散有历史和当代的原因。
- 历史:殖民主义(colonialism)、帝国主义(imperialism)、贸易,和宗教的传播几个世纪以来把文化带到世界各地。
- 当代:全球化(globalisation)、互联网、交通,和时空压缩巨大地加速扩散——一个趋势现在能在几小时内传遍全世界。
这些力量能传播文化但也威胁本地传统,引发关于一个全球文化与本地身份的辩论。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 colonialism 殖民主义 zhí mín zhǔ yì imperialism 帝国主义 dì guó zhǔ yì globalisation 全球化 quán qiú huà 3.7
宗教与语言的扩散
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge IMP-3
The interaction of people contributes to the spread of cultural practices.IMP-3.B
Explain what factors lead to the diffusion of universalizing and ethnic religions.- IMP-3.B.1 Language families, languages, dialects, world religions, ethnic cultures, and gender roles diffuse from cultural hearths.
- IMP-3.B.2 Diffusion of language families, including Indo-European, and religious patterns and distributions can be visually represented on maps, in charts and toponyms, and in other representations.
- IMP-3.B.3 Religions have distinct places of origin from which they diffused to other locations through different processes. Practices and belief systems impacted how widespread the religion diffused.
- IMP-3.B.4 Universalizing religions, including Christianity, Islam, Buddhism, and Sikhism, are spread through expansion and relocation diffusion.
- IMP-3.B.5 Ethnic religions, including Hinduism and Judaism, are generally found near the hearth or spread through relocation diffusion.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
宗教和语言是文化扩散最清晰的两个例子。
- 普世宗教(universalising religions)(基督教、伊斯兰教、佛教)主动寻求皈依者并通过扩展和迁移扩散广泛传播。民族宗教(ethnic religions)(印度教、犹太教)与一个群体绑定,主要通过迁移传播。
- 语言属于语系(language families);它们随着迁移和贸易传播,并能分裂成方言(dialects)或随着说话者转向一门主导语言而消亡。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Universalising religions 普世宗教 pǔ shì zōng jiào Ethnic religions 民族宗教 mín zú zōng jiào language families 语系 yǔ xì dialects 方言 fāng yán 3.8
扩散的影响
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge SPS-3
Cultural ideas, practices, and innovations change or disappear over time.SPS-3.B
Explain how the process of diffusion results in changes to the cultural landscape.- SPS-3.B.1 Acculturation, assimilation, syncretism, and multiculturalism are effects of the diffusion of culture.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
当文化传播并相遇时,几个结果随之而来:
- 文化趋同(cultural convergence)——文化随着它们共享特征而变得更相似(全球品牌、网上的英语)。
- 文化分化(cultural divergence)——一个文化变得更独特,常常为了抵抗外部影响。
- 扩散能用新的食物、音乐和思想丰富一个地方,但也能侵蚀本地语言和传统——一个全球化世界的一个核心张力。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Cultural convergence 文化趋同 wén huà qū tóng Cultural divergence 文化分化 wén huà fēn huà 3.8
考试技巧
- 把迁移扩散(人移动)与扩展扩散(思想传播并留在它的源头)区分开。
- 精确地命名扩展的子类型:传染、等级或刺激。
- 把普世宗教(寻求皈依者)与民族宗教(主要通过出生传播)分开。
- 用文化景观——建筑、地名(toponyms)、承继占用——作为过去群体的证据。
- 对于效应,把文化适应、同化和融合保持分明;它们不相同。
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4
政治的格局与过程
4.1
政治地理学导论
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge PSO-4
The political organization of space results from historical and current processes, events, and ideas.PSO-4.A
For world political maps: a. Define the different types of political entities. b. Identify a contemporary example of political entities.- PSO-4.A.1 Independent states are the primary building blocks of the world political map.
- PSO-4.A.2 Types of political entities include nations, nation-states, stateless nations, multinational states, multistate nations, and autonomous and semiautonomous regions, such as American Indian reservations.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
政治地理学(political geography)研究人类如何划分和控制空间。它的关键单位:
- 一个国家(state)(country)是一个有确定边界、一个永久人口、一个政府,和主权(sovereignty)——对它自己事务的完全控制——的地区。
- 一个民族(nation)是一群有共享的文化和身份的人;一个民族国家(nation-state)是一个边界匹配一个民族的国家(日本很接近)。
- 一个多民族国家(multinational state)包含几个民族;一个无国家民族(stateless nation)(像库尔德人)没有它自己的国家。
Worked example(一道真实的 AP 考题)。 "定义独立国家的概念。"(2025)满分答案:"一个主权国家,治理自己和自己的领土,不被任何外部势力控制,并被其他国家承认。" 命令词 Define(定义)要求一个简短、精确的含义——一句清晰的话就够了。这里你不需要例子或解释;把那些留给"Describe"和"Explain"的部分。
UN General Assembly: sovereignty and recognition among states 词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Political geography 政治地理学 zhèng zhì dì lǐ xué state 国家 guó jiā sovereignty 主权 zhǔ quán nation 民族 mín zú nation-state 民族国家 mín zú guó jiā multinational state 多民族国家 duō mín zú guó jiā stateless nation 无国家民族 wú guó jiā mín zú 4.2 4.3
政治过程
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge PSO-4
The political organization of space results from historical and current processes, events, and ideas.PSO-4.B
Explain the processes that have shaped contemporary political geography.- PSO-4.B.1 The concepts of sovereignty, nation- states, and self-determination shape the contemporary world.
- PSO-4.B.2 Colonialism, imperialism, independence movements, and devolution along national lines have influenced contemporary political boundaries.
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge PSO-4
The political organization of space results from historical and current processes, events, and ideas.PSO-4.C
Describe the concepts of political power and territoriality as used by geographers.- PSO-4.C.1 Political power is expressed geographically as control over people, land, and resources, as illustrated by neocolonialism, shatterbelts, and choke points.
- PSO-4.C.2 Territoriality is the connection of people, their culture, and their economic systems to the land.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
领域性(territoriality)是一个人或群体通过控制一个地区来控制人和物的尝试。权力通过对土地、人和资源的控制在地理上表达。
- 殖民主义(colonialism)和帝国主义(imperialism)通过控制遥远的领土建立帝国;新殖民主义(neocolonialism)是在正式独立后持续的经济控制。
- 咽喉要道(choke points)(像苏伊士运河或马六甲海峡这样的狭窄通道)和破碎地带(shatterbelts)(夹在竞争大国之间的地区)显示地理如何塑造政治权力。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Territoriality 领域性 lǐng yù xìng neocolonialism 新殖民主义 xīn zhí mín zhǔ yì Choke points 咽喉要道 yān hóu yào dào shatterbelts 破碎地带 pò suì dì dài 4.4 4.5 4.6
政治边界的界定
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge IMP-4
Political boundaries and divisions of governance, between states and within them, reflect balances of power that have been negotiated or imposed.IMP-4.A
Define types of political boundaries used by geographers.- IMP-4.A.1 Types of political boundaries include relic, superimposed, subsequent, antecedent, geometric, and consequent boundaries.
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge IMP-4
Political boundaries and divisions of governance, between states and within them, reflect balances of power that have been negotiated or imposed.IMP-4.B
Explain the nature and function of international and internal boundaries.- IMP-4.B.1 Boundaries are defined, delimited, demarcated, and administered to establish limits of sovereignty, but they are often contested.
- IMP-4.B.2 Political boundaries often coincide with cultural, national, or economic divisions. However, some boundaries are created by demilitarized zones or policy, such as the Berlin Conference.
- IMP-4.B.3 Land and maritime boundaries and international agreements can influence national or regional identity and encourage or discourage international or internal interactions and disputes over resources.
- IMP-4.B.4 The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea defines the rights and responsibilities of nations in the use of international waters, established territorial seas, and exclusive economic zones.
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge IMP-4
Political boundaries and divisions of governance, between states and within them, reflect balances of power that have been negotiated or imposed.IMP-4.B
Explain the nature and function of international and internal boundaries.- IMP-4.B.5 Voting districts, redistricting, and gerrymandering affect election results at various scales.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
一个边界(boundary)是标记一个国家领土界限的一条线。按起源的类型:
国家采取不同的形状;每个形状影响这个国家能多容易地被治理 - 先成边界(antecedent)(在密集定居之前画出)、后成边界(subsequent)(随着文化发展画出)、叠加边界(superimposed)(由一个外部力量强加,忽略本地文化),和残余边界(relic)(不再是一个边界但仍然可见,像柏林墙)。
- 定义、划定和标定(definition, delimitation, and demarcation)是设定一个边界的步骤:商定措辞、在一张地图上画它,然后在地面上标记它。
- 在海上,联合国海洋法公约(UN Convention on the Law of the Sea,UNCLOS)设定每个沿海国家的领海,以及一个专属经济区(exclusive economic zone,EEZ),界定对渔业和海床资源的权利。
- 一个国家的形状(shape of a state)重要:紧凑(compact)的国家容易治理;狭长(elongated)、破碎(fragmented)、穿孔(perforated),和突出(prorupted)的形状造成治理挑战。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 boundary 边界 biān jiè Antecedent 先成边界 xiān chéng biān jiè subsequent 后成边界 hòu chéng biān jiè superimposed 叠加边界 dié jiā biān jiè relic 残余边界 cán yú biān jiè UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) 联合国海洋法公约 lián hé guó hǎi yáng fǎ gōng yuē exclusive economic zone (EEZ) 专属经济区 zhuān shǔ jīng jì qū 4.7
治理形式
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Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge IMP-4
Political boundaries and divisions of governance, between states and within them, reflect balances of power that have been negotiated or imposed.IMP-4.C
Define federal and unitary states.- IMP-4.C.1 Forms of governance include unitary states and federal states.
IMP-4.D
Explain how federal and unitary states affect spatial organization.- IMP-4.D.1 Unitary states tend to have a more top-down, centralized form of governance, while federal states have more locally based, dispersed power centers. SUGGESTED SKILLS Spatial Relationships Describe spatial patterns, networks, and relationships.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
国家以两种主要方式在中央和地区之间组织权力:
一个单一制国家保持权力中央;一个联邦制国家与地区政府分享权力 - 一个单一制国家(unitary state)把大部分权力保持在中央政府(法国)。它在小的或文化统一的国家里工作最好。
- 一个联邦制国家(federal state)在中央和地区政府之间分享权力(美国、印度)。它适合大的或多样的国家。
- 选区划分不公(gerrymandering)是重新绘制投票区边界以偏袒一个群体——地理的一个政治用途。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 unitary state 单一制国家 dān yī zhì guó jiā federal state 联邦制国家 lián bāng zhì guó jiā Gerrymandering 选区划分不公 xuǎn qū huà fēn bù gōng 4.8 4.9
权力下放因素的界定
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Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge SPS-4
Political, economic, cultural, or technological changes can challenge state sovereignty.SPS-4.A
Define factors that lead to the devolution of states.- SPS-4.A.1 Factors that can lead to the devolution of states include the division of groups by physical geography, ethnic separatism, ethnic cleansing, terrorism, economic and social problems, and irredentism.
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge SPS-4
Political, economic, cultural, or technological changes can challenge state sovereignty.SPS-4.B
Explain how political, economic, cultural, and technological changes challenge state sovereignty.- SPS-4.B.1 Devolution occurs when states fragment into autonomous regions; subnational political- territorial units, such as those within Spain, Belgium, Canada, and Nigeria; or when states disintegrate, as happened in Sudan and the former Soviet Union.
- SPS-4.B.2 Advances in communication technology have facilitated devolution, supranationalism, and democratization.
- SPS-4.B.3 Global efforts to address transnational and environmental challenges and to create economies of scale, trade agreements, and military alliances help to further supranationalism.
- SPS-4.B.4 Supranational organizations—including the United Nations (UN), North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), European Union (EU), Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), Arctic Council, and African Union— can challenge state sovereignty by limiting the economic or political actions of member states.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
权力下放(devolution)是权力从一个中央政府向下转移给地区政府。它由下放因素驱动:族裔或宗教差异、物理地理(岛屿、山脉),和经济不平等。
- 强的差异能导致一个地区的自治(autonomy),甚至一个完全独立的运动。
- 主权也从外部被超国家组织(supranational organisations)(欧盟、联合国)、全球化,和自由地跨越边界的互联网挑战。
Hard borders and contested control: sovereignty challenges on the ground 词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Devolution 权力下放 quán lì xià fàng autonomy 自治 zì zhì supranational organisations 超国家组织 chāo guó jiā zǔ zhī 4.10
离心力与向心力的影响
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Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge SPS-4
Political, economic, cultural, or technological changes can challenge state sovereignty.SPS-4.C
Explain how the concepts of centrifugal and centripetal forces apply at the state scale.- SPS-4.C.1 Centrifugal forces may lead to failed states, uneven development, stateless nations, and ethnic nationalist movements.
- SPS-4.C.2 Centripetal forces can lead to ethnonationalism, more equitable infrastructure development, and increased cultural cohesion.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
两种对立的力量作用于每个国家:
- 离心力(centrifugal forces)把一个国家拉开——族裔冲突、不均匀的发展,和弱的身份能导致失败国家(failed states)和分裂主义运动。
- 向心力(centripetal forces)把一个国家维系在一起——一门共享的语言、国家象征、公平的基础设施,和一个强的国家身份(与一个族裔群体绑定时是族裔民族主义(ethnonationalism))。
政府加强向心力(国家节日、一门共同语言)以保持国家统一。平衡这些力量是政治地理学的中心任务。
城市集中政治与经济权力 探索Centrifugal or centripetal force?
A centrifugal force pulls a state apart; a centripetal force holds it together.
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Centrifugal forces 离心力 lí xīn lì failed states 失败国家 shī bài guó jiā Centripetal forces 向心力 xiàng xīn lì ethnonationalism 族裔民族主义 zú yì mín zú zhǔ yì 4.10
考试技巧
- 把国家(领土 + 主权)、民族(一群人)和民族国家清晰地分开。
- 按历史(先成 / 后成 / 叠加 / 残余)和按阶段(定义到管理)给一个边界分类。
- 命名边界争端类型:定义性、位置性、操作性或分配性。
- 比较单一制和联邦制治理,并把这个选择与管理多样性联系起来。
- 通过离心和向心力和权力下放解释不稳定;使用中立的例子。
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5
农业与乡村土地利用的格局与过程
5.1
农业导论
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Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge PSO-5
Availability of resources and cultural practices influence agricultural practices and land-use patterns.PSO-5.A
Explain the connection between physical geography and agricultural practices.- PSO-5.A.1 Agricultural practices are influenced by the physical environment and climatic conditions, such as the Mediterranean climate and tropical climates.
- PSO-5.A.2 Intensive farming practices include market gardening, plantation agriculture, and mixed crop/livestock systems.
- PSO-5.A.3 Extensive farming practices include shifting cultivation, nomadic herding, and ranching.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
农业(agriculture)是为食物和其他产品而有意地种植作物和饲养动物。第一个大分割:
- 自给农业(subsistence agriculture)——为养活农民自己的家庭而务农,在欠发达地区常见。
- 商业农业(commercial agriculture)——为出售获利而务农,在发达地区常见并常常大规模和机械化。
农业也按强度变化:集约(intensive)农业在一个小地区上使用大量的劳动或金钱(稻田、市场园艺);粗放(extensive)农业在一个大地区上使用很少的投入(牧场、迁移耕作)。
下面两张照片是第一种划分的两个极端——一台机器供应市场,对比一个人养活一家:
商业农业:一台联合收割机几乎不用人力就收割一大片麦田,种粮食来卖 
自给农业:一个农民用锄头手工耕作一小块地,主要是为了养活家人 探索Intensive or extensive farming?
Intensive farming puts a lot of labour or money into a small area; extensive farming spreads little input over a large area.
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Agriculture 农业 nóng yè Subsistence agriculture 自给农业 zì jǐ nóng yè Commercial agriculture 商业农业 shāng yè nóng yè intensive 集约 jí yuē extensive 粗放 cū fàng 5.2
聚落格局与测量方法
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Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge PSO-5
Availability of resources and cultural practices influence agricultural practices and land-use patterns.PSO-5.B
Identify different rural settlement patterns and methods of surveying rural settlements.- PSO-5.B.1 Specific agricultural practices shape different rural land-use patterns.
- PSO-5.B.2 Rural settlement patterns are classified as clustered, dispersed, or linear.
- PSO-5.B.3 Rural survey methods include metes and bounds, township and range, and long lot.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
农民如何在土地上定居留下一个持久的格局。
- 集聚(核状)(clustered (nucleated))定居点把住房聚在一起;分散(dispersed)定居点把它们散开;线性(linear)定居点跟随一条道路或河流。
- 测量方法(survey methods)划分土地:边界描述法(metes-and-bounds)系统使用自然特征;镇区-区段制(township-and-range)系统使用一个正方形的网格;长条地(long-lot)系统给每个农场一个到达一条河或道路的细条。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Clustered (nucleated) 集聚式 jí jù shì dispersed 分散 fēn sàn 5.3 5.4 5.5
农业的起源与扩散
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Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge SPS-5
Agriculture has changed over time because of cultural diffusion and advances in technology.SPS-5.A
Identify major centers of domestication of plants and animals.- SPS-5.A.1 Early hearths of domestication of plants and animals arose in the Fertile Crescent and several other regions of the world, including the Indus River Valley, Southeast Asia, and Central America.
SPS-5.B
Explain how plants and animals diffused globally.- SPS-5.B.1 Patterns of diffusion, such as the Columbian Exchange and the agricultural revolutions, resulted in the global spread of various plants and animals.
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge SPS-5
Agriculture has changed over time because of cultural diffusion and advances in technology.SPS-5.C
Explain the advances and impacts of the second agricultural revolution.- SPS-5.C.1 New technology and increased food production in the second agricultural revolution led to better diets, longer life expectancies, and more people available for work in factories.
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge SPS-5
Agriculture has changed over time because of cultural diffusion and advances in technology.SPS-5.D
Explain the consequences of the Green Revolution on food supply and the environment in the developing world.- SPS-5.D.1 The Green Revolution was characterized in agriculture by the use of high-yield seeds, increased use of chemicals, and mechanized farming.
- SPS-5.D.2 The Green Revolution had positive and negative consequences for both human populations and the environment.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
农业在少数源地开始并通过扩散传播,然后被三次革命改造。
- 第一次(新石器)农业革命(First (Neolithic) Agricultural Revolution)是植物和动物的最初驯化,让人们能在一个地方定居。
- 第二次农业革命(Second Agricultural Revolution)使用工业革命的工具(机器、更好的交通、轮作)来提高产出并养活增长的城市。
- 绿色革命(Green Revolution)(1900 年代中期)引入高产种子、肥料、农药和灌溉——巨大地增加食物产出,尽管以一个环境和社会成本。
Worked example(一道真实的 AP 考题)。 "描述早期驯化中心的概念。"(2023)满分答案:"一个人们首次把野生植物或动物驯化成农养品种的地方,并且那种农业实践从那里传播到其他区域。" 命令词 Describe(描述)要求的比一个单词的定义更多——给出关键特征(驯化在哪里开始并且它传播了)——但它不要求"Explain"所要求的因果推理。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 First (Neolithic) Agricultural Revolution 新石器农业革命 xīn shí qì nóng yè gé mìng Second Agricultural Revolution 第二次农业革命 dì èr cì nóng yè gé mìng Green Revolution 绿色革命 lǜ sè gé mìng 5.6
农业生产区域
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Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge PSO-5
Availability of resources and cultural practices influence agricultural practices and land-use patterns.PSO-5.C
Explain how economic forces influence agricultural practices.- PSO-5.C.1 Agricultural production regions are defined by the extent to which they reflect subsistence or commercial practices (monocropping or monoculture).
- PSO-5.C.2 Intensive and extensive farming practices are determined in part by land costs (bid-rent theory).
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
一个地方的农业类型取决于气候和发展水平。
- 热带地区偏好迁移耕作(shifting cultivation)(刀耕火种)和种植园作物;干旱地区偏好游牧(pastoral nomadism)(放牧)。
- 发达地区有混合作物和牲畜、乳制品业,和大型商业谷物农场。
- 竞租理论(bid-rent theory)解释为什么靠近一个市场的土地被更集约地使用:它更贵,所以它必须每公顷赚更多。
一个茶叶种植园(plantation):一种经济作物成排地种在一大片土地上,是热带商业农业的典型 
两个轴——每单位土地投入多少劳动和资本(集约与粗放),以及食物为谁而产(自给与商业) 词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 shifting cultivation 迁移农业 qiān yí nóng yè pastoral nomadism 游牧 yóu mù Bid-rent theory 竞租理论 jìng zū lǐ lùn plantation 种植园 zhòng zhí yuán 5.7 5.8
农业的空间组织
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge PSO-5
Availability of resources and cultural practices influence agricultural practices and land-use patterns.PSO-5.C
Explain how economic forces influence agricultural practices.- PSO-5.C.3 Large-scale commercial agricultural operations are replacing small family farms.
- PSO-5.C.4 Complex commodity chains link production and consumption of agricultural products.
- PSO-5.C.5 Technology has increased economies of scale in the agricultural sector and the carrying capacity of the land.
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge PSO-5
Availability of resources and cultural practices influence agricultural practices and land-use patterns.PSO-5.D
Describe how the von Thünen model is used to explain patterns of agricultural production at various scales.- PSO-5.D.1 Von Thünen’s model helps to explain rural land use by emphasizing the importance of transportation costs associated with distance from the market; however, regions of specialty farming do not always conform to von Thünen’s concentric rings.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
冯·杜能模型 冯·杜能模型(von Thünen model)(1826)基于运输成本和到市场的距离解释农民在哪里种植什么。
易腐、重,或集约的产品位于市场附近;粗放的用途位于更远处 - 中心是市场(一座城市)。围绕它,土地使用形成同心环。
- 环 1 ——市场园艺和乳制品业(易腐,必须靠近市场)。
- 环 2 ——森林(在他那个时代,重的柴火,移动昂贵)。
- 环 3 ——大田作物和谷物(不那么易腐)。
- 环 4 ——牧场(粗放,每公顷价值低,能在很远)。
模型假设一个平坦、均质的平原,带一个市场。真实的地区因为道路、河流、地形和冷藏而弯曲这些环——但核心思想,即运输成本塑造土地使用,仍然成立。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 von Thünen model 冯·杜能模型 féng · dù néng mó xíng 5.9
全球农业系统
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Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge PSO-5
Availability of resources and cultural practices influence agricultural practices and land use patterns.PSO-5.E
Explain the interdependence among regions of agricultural production and consumption.- PSO-5.E.1 Food and other agricultural products are part of a global supply chain.
- PSO-5.E.2 Some countries have become highly dependent on one or more export commodities.
- PSO-5.E.3 The main elements of global food distribution networks are affected by political relationships, infrastructure, and patterns of world trade.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
现代农业是一个全球供应链(global supply chain)。
- 农业综合企业(agribusiness)把农场与种子、机械、加工和零售公司联系起来。
- 许多国家专门于少数出口商品(export commodities)(咖啡、可可、大豆),这能使它们依赖世界价格。
- 公平贸易(fair trade)和本地食物运动是对这个全球系统不平等的回应。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 global supply chain 全球供应链 quán qiú gōng yìng liàn Agribusiness 农业综合企业 nóng yè zōng hé qǐ yè export commodities 出口商品 chū kǒu shāng pǐn Fair trade 公平贸易 gōng píng mào yì 5.10 5.11
农业实践的影响
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Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge IMP-5
Agricultural production and consumption patterns vary in different locations, presenting different environmental, social, economic, and cultural opportunities and challenges.IMP-5.A
Explain how agricultural practices have environmental and societal consequences.- IMP-5.A.1 Environmental effects of agricultural land use include pollution, land cover change, desertification, soil salinization, and conservation efforts.
- IMP-5.A.2 Agricultural practices—including slash and burn, terraces, irrigation, deforestation, draining wetlands, shifting cultivation, and pastoral nomadism—alter the landscape.
- IMP-5.A.3 Societal effects of agricultural practices include changing diets, role of women in agricultural production, and economic purpose.
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge IMP-5
Agricultural production and consumption patterns vary in different locations, presenting different environmental, social, economic, and cultural opportunities and challenges.IMP-5.B
Explain challenges and debates related to the changing nature of contemporary agriculture and food-production practices.- IMP-5.B.1 Agricultural innovations such as biotechnology, genetically modified organisms, and aquaculture have been accompanied by debates over sustainability, soil and water usage, reductions in biodiversity, and extensive fertilizer and pesticide use.
- IMP-5.B.2 Patterns of food production and consumption are influenced by movements relating to individual food choice, such as urban farming, community-supported agriculture (CSA), organic farming, value-added specialty crops, fair trade, local-food movements, and dietary shifts.
- IMP-5.B.3 Challenges of feeding a global population include lack of food access, as in cases of food insecurity and food deserts; problems with distribution systems; adverse weather; and land use lost to suburbanization.
- IMP-5.B.4 The location of food-processing facilities and markets, economies of scale, distribution systems, and government policies all have economic effects on food-production practices.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
现代农业养活数十亿人但造成问题:
- 环境:土壤侵蚀、来自肥料的水污染、生物多样性丧失、荒漠化(desertification),和温室气体排放。
- 经济和社会:小家庭农场的丧失、农村人口减少,和关于粮食安全(food security)和转基因生物(GMOs)的问题。
- 土地利用变化:郊区化(suburbanisation)和城市增长侵蚀城市边缘的农田。
Intensive commercial farming: monocultures raise yields but can degrade soil and biodiversity 词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 desertification 荒漠化 huāng mò huà food security 粮食安全 liáng shí ān quán GMOs 转基因生物 zhuǎn jī yīn shēng wù 5.12
农业中的妇女
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Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge IMP-5
Agricultural production and consumption patterns vary in different locations, presenting different environmental, social, economic, and cultural opportunities and challenges.IMP-5.C
Explain geographic variations in female roles in food production and consumption.- IMP-5.C.1 The role of females in food production, distribution, and consumption varies in many places depending on the type of production involved.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
在发展中世界的大部分地区,女性做大部分的农活,尤其是在自给农业里,却常常只拥有很少的土地。她们的角色对家庭食物供应至关重要。改善女性对土地、信贷和教育的获取提高农场产出,并且通过降低生育率,与人口转变联系回去。
5.12
考试技巧
- 一次在两个轴上给农业分类:自给或商业,以及集约或粗放。
- 用运输成本和产品的易腐性驱动每个冯·杜能答案。
- 权衡绿色革命:更高的产量对昂贵的投入、环境伤害,和不均匀的触及。
- 从田地形状命名测量系统(长条地、镇区-区段制、边界描述法)。
- 把农业与它的后果联系起来:土壤退化、水污染,和森林砍伐。
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6
城市与城市土地利用的格局与过程
6.1 6.2
城市化的起源与影响因素
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge PSO-6
The presence and growth of cities vary across geographical locations because of physical geography and resources.PSO-6.A
Explain the processes that initiate and drive urbanization and suburbanization.- PSO-6.A.1 Site and situation influence the origin, function, and growth of cities.
- PSO-6.A.2 Changes in transportation and communication, population growth, migration, economic development, and government policies influence urbanization.
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge PSO-6
The presence and growth of cities vary across geographical locations because of physical geography and resources.PSO-6.A
Explain the processes that initiate and drive urbanization and suburbanization.- PSO-6.A.3 Megacities and metacities are distinct spatial outcomes of urbanization increasingly located in countries of the periphery and semiperiphery.
- PSO-6.A.4 Processes of suburbanization, sprawl, and decentralization have created new land-use forms—including edge cities, exurbs, and boomburbs—and new challenges.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
城市化(urbanization)是住在城市里的人的份额的增长。它以把一些人从农业中解放出来的农业剩余开始,并随着工业革命加速。
- 城市化率(urbanization rate)在今天的发展中国家上升最快,由从农村到城市的迁移驱动。
- 一个郊区(suburb)是一座城市边缘的一个居住区;郊区化(suburbanization)和城市蔓延(sprawl)使城市向外扩散。
- 地点(site)(一个地方的物理特征)和区位(situation)(它相对于其他地方的位置)解释为什么一座城市在它所在的地方增长。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Urbanization 城市化 chéng shì huà suburb 郊区 jiāo qū suburbanization 郊区化 jiāo qū huà sprawl 城市蔓延 chéng shì màn yán Site 地点 dì diǎn situation 区位 qū wèi 6.3
城市与全球化
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge PSO-6
The presence and growth of cities vary across geographical locations because of physical geography and resources.PSO-6.B
Explain how cities embody processes of globalization.- PSO-6.B.1 World cities function at the top of the world’s urban hierarchy and drive globalization.
- PSO-6.B.2 Cities are connected globally by networks and linkages and mediate global processes.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
一些城市有远超过它们自己国家的影响。
- 世界城市(world cities)(也叫全球城市(global cities))——例如纽约、伦敦和东京——是全球经济、金融和文化的指挥中心。
- 全球化把城市联系成网络;一个世界城市里的一个决定能影响地球另一边的工作。
纽约的曼哈顿天际线,一个世界城市:它的银行和公司总部帮助运转全球经济 
Shibuya Crossing: world cities concentrate people, infrastructure and global connections 词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 World cities 世界城市 shì jiè chéng shì Infrastructure 基础设施 jī chǔ shè shī 6.4
城市的规模与分布
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge PSO-6
The presence and growth of cities vary across geographical locations because of physical geography and resources.PSO-6.C
Identify the different urban concepts such as hierarchy, interdependence, relative size, and spacing that are useful for explaining the distribution, size, and interaction of cities.- PSO-6.C.1 Principles that are useful for explaining the distribution and size of cities include rank-size rule, the primate city, gravity, and Christaller’s central place theory.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
位序-规模法则与首位城市 克里斯塔勒中心地理论 一个国家内的城市遵循大小和间距的格局。
- 位序规模法则(rank-size rule)说第 n 大的城市是最大的 1/n 大小(第 2 城市是最大的一半、第 3 是三分之一,等等)。
- 一个首位城市(primate city)比所有其他的都大得多(巴黎、曼谷),主导它的国家。
- 中心地理论(central place theory)(克里斯塔勒)解释定居点的间距:更大的中心更少且相距更远并提供更高级的物品;它们的市场区是它们服务的周围地区。
在位序-规模规则下,第 n 大城市约为最大城市的 1/n;首位型格局有一个远大于其余城市的主导城市 Worked example(一道真实的 AP 考题)。 "比较特大城市(metacity)的概念与世界城市(world city)的概念。"(2024)满分答案:"特大城市由规模定义——一个超过 2000 万人的连续城区——而世界城市由影响力定义,作为全球经济的一个指挥中心。像东京这样的城市两者都是,但较穷国家的一个大特大城市可能不是世界城市。" 命令词 Compare(比较)需要一个明确的差异点(规模对影响力),而不是并排放着两个独立的定义。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 rank-size rule 位序规模法则 wèi xù guī mó fǎ zé primate city 首位城市 shǒu wèi chéng shì Central place theory 中心地理论 zhōng xīn dì lǐ lùn 6.5
城市的内部结构
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge PSO-6
The presence and growth of cities vary across geographical locations because of physical geography and resources.PSO-6.D
Explain the internal structure of cities using various models and theories.- PSO-6.D.1 Models and theories that are useful for explaining internal structures of cities include the Burgess concentric-zone model, the Hoyt sector model, the Harris and Ullman multiple- nuclei model, the galactic city model, bid-rent theory, and urban models drawn from Latin America, Southeast Asia, and Africa.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
城市内部结构模型 三个经典模型描述北美城市在内部如何排列。
同心圆、扇形和多核心模型各以不同的方式解释城市土地使用 - 同心圆模型(concentric zone model)(伯吉斯)——围绕中央商务区(CBD)(Central Business District)的环,从内城到通勤郊区。
- 扇形模型(sector model)(霍伊特)——土地使用沿运输路线以楔形向外增长。
- 多核心模型(multiple nuclei model)(哈里斯-厄尔曼)——随着城市增长和专业化,它有几个中心(节点),不只是一个 CBD。
发展中世界的城市有它们自己的模型(例如拉丁美洲的,或格里芬-福特模型,带一条从中心的财富脊柱)。
探索Which urban model is it?
The concentric zone model uses rings around the CBD; the sector model uses wedges along transport routes; the multiple nuclei model has several centres.
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Concentric zone model 同心圆模型 tóng xīn yuán mó xíng Central Business District (CBD) 中央商务区 zhōng yāng shāng wù qū Sector model 扇形模型 shàn xíng mó xíng Multiple nuclei model 多核心模型 duō hé xīn mó xíng 6.6 6.7
密度与土地利用
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge IMP-6
The attitudes and values of a population, as well as the balance of power within that population, are reflected in the built landscape.IMP-6.A
Explain how low-, medium-, and high-density housing characteristics represent different patterns of residential land use.- IMP-6.A.1 Residential buildings and patterns of land use reflect and shape the city’s culture, technological capabilities, cycles of development, and infilling.
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge IMP-6
The attitudes and values of a population, as well as the balance of power within that population, are reflected in the built landscape.IMP-6.B
Explain how a city’s infrastructure relates to local politics, society, and the environment.- IMP-6.B.1 The location and quality of a city’s infrastructure directly affects its spatial patterns of economic and social development.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
竞租理论 在城市内部,土地使用和密度从中心到边缘变化。
- 密度在 CBD 附近最高(高楼、高地价)并向外下降——又是竞租曲线。
- 分区规划(zoning)法律分开土地使用(居住、商业、工业)。
- 基础设施(infrastructure)——道路、水、电、公交——必须随着城市增长;它落后的地方,非正规住区(informal settlements)(贫民窟)可能形成。
里约热内卢一座山坡上的非正规住区(贫民窟),建在住房和服务跟不上快速城市增长的地方 词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Zoning 分区规划 fēn qū guī huà informal settlements 非正规住区 fēi zhèng guī zhù qū 6.8 6.9
城市可持续性
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge IMP-6
The attitudes and values of a population, as well as the balance of power within that population, are reflected in the built landscape.IMP-6.C
Identify the different urban design initiatives and practices.- IMP-6.C.1 Sustainable design initiatives and zoning practices include mixed land use, walkability, transportation-oriented development, and smart-growth policies, including New Urbanism, greenbelts, and slow-growth cities.
IMP-6.D
Explain the effects of different urban design initiatives and practices.- IMP-6.D.1 Praise for urban design initiatives includes the reduction of sprawl, improved walkability and transportation, improved and diverse housing options, improved livability and promotion of sustainable options. Criticisms include increased housing costs, possible de facto segregation, and the potential loss of historical or place character.
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge IMP-6
The attitudes and values of a population, as well as the balance of power within that population, are reflected in the built landscape.IMP-6.E
Explain how qualitative and quantitative data are used to show the causes and effects of geographic change within urban areas.- IMP-6.E.1 Quantitative data from census and survey data provide information about changes in population composition and size in urban areas.
- IMP-6.E.2 Qualitative data from field studies and narratives provide information about individual attitudes toward urban change.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
规划者用数据和设计来使城市工作得更好。
- 精明增长(smart-growth)、混合用途(mixed-use)开发,和公交导向(transit-oriented)设计对抗蔓延和汽车依赖。
- 绿带(greenbelts)限制向外增长;城市更新(urban renewal)重建衰败的地区,但能造成使较穷的居民流离失所的中产阶级化(gentrification)。
- 普查和地理空间数据指导在哪里放学校、公交和服务。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Smart-growth 精明增长 jīng míng zēng zhǎng Greenbelts 绿带 lǜ dài urban renewal 城市更新 chéng shì gēng xīn gentrification 中产阶级化 zhōng chǎn jiē jí huà 6.10 6.11
城市变化的挑战
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge SPS-6
Urban areas face unique economic, political, cultural, and environmental challenges.SPS-6.A
Explain causes and effects of geographic change within urban areas.- SPS-6.A.1 As urban populations move within a city, economic and social challenges result, including: issues related to housing and housing discrimination such as redlining, blockbusting, and affordability; access to services; rising crime; environmental injustice; and the growth of disamenity zones or zones of abandonment.
- SPS-6.A.2 Squatter settlements and conflicts over land tenure within large cities have increased.
- SPS-6.A.3 Responses to economic and social challenges in urban areas can include inclusionary zoning and local food movements.
- SPS-6.A.4 Urban renewal and gentrification have both positive and negative consequences.
- SPS-6.A.5 Functional and geographic fragmentation of governments—the way government agencies and institutions are dispersed between state, county, city, and neighborhood levels—presents challenges in addressing urban issues.
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge SPS-6
Urban areas face unique economic, political, cultural, and environmental challenges.SPS-6.B
Describe the effectiveness of different attempts to address urban sustainability challenges.- SPS-6.B.1 Challenges to urban sustainability include suburban sprawl, sanitation, climate change, air and water quality, the large ecological footprint of cities, and energy use.
- SPS-6.B.2 Responses to urban sustainability challenges can include regional planning efforts, remediation and redevelopment of brownfields, establishment of urban growth boundaries, and farmland protection policies.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
快速的城市增长带来问题:
- 社会:住房短缺、隔离,和中产阶级化造成的流离失所。
- 环境:空气和水污染、城市热岛(urban heat island)效应、废物,和大量资源使用。
- 经济:紧张的预算、拥堵,和把基础设施延伸到蔓延边缘的成本。
可持续的城市试图向上而不是向外增长、投资公共交通,并把住房与工作和服务混合。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 urban heat island 城市热岛 chéng shì rè dǎo 6.10 6.11
考试技巧
- 把一座城市的地点(物理环境)与它的区位(相对于其他的位置)分开。
- 应用位序规模法则(第 n 城市约是最大的 1/n)并发现一个首位城市。
- 把一座城市的描述匹配到正确的模型:同心圆、扇形或多核心。
- 把地价与密度联系起来——昂贵的中心土地通过向上建造被使用。
- 用郊区化、城市蔓延和中产阶级化,以及精明增长回应讨论变化。
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7
工业与经济发展的格局与过程
7.1
工业革命
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge SPS-7
Industrialization, past and present, has facilitated improvements in standards of living, but it has also contributed to geographically uneven development.SPS-7.A
Explain how the Industrial Revolution facilitated the growth and diffusion of industrialization.- SPS-7.A.1 Industrialization began as a result of new technologies and was facilitated by the availability of natural resources.
- SPS-7.A.2 As industrialization spread it caused food supplies to increase and populations to grow; it allowed workers to seek new industrial jobs in the cities and changed class structures.
- SPS-7.A.3 Investors in industry sought out more raw materials and new markets, a factor that contributed to the rise of colonialism and imperialism.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
工业革命(Industrial Revolution)(从 1700 年代)把生产从家庭里的手工工具转移到工厂里的机器,先在英国然后遍及全世界。它改造了地理:
- 工业聚集在资源(煤、铁)和交通(河流、港口、铁路)汇合的地方。
- 它随着工人搬到工厂城市而驱动城市化,并开始世界地区之间巨大的、不均匀的财富扩散。
- 转运点(break-of-bulk points)(货物改变运输的港口、铁路枢纽)成为关键的工业位置。
一个集装箱港口:船、起重机和铁路在这里交汇,所以货物改变运输方式。这样的转运点成为主要的工业位置 词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Industrial Revolution 工业革命 gōng yè gé mìng Break-of-bulk points 转运点 zhuǎn yùn diǎn 7.2
经济部门与格局
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge SPS-7
Industrialization, past and present, has facilitated improvements in standards of living, but it has also contributed to geographically uneven development.SPS-7.B
Explain the spatial patterns of industrial production and development.- SPS-7.B.1 The different economic sectors—including primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary, and quinary—are characterized by distinct development patterns.
- SPS-7.B.2 Labor, transportation (including shipping containers), the break-of-bulk point, least cost theory, markets, and resources influence the location of manufacturing such as core, semiperiphery, and periphery locations.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
韦伯最小成本区位论 一个经济的工作落入部门,而随着一个国家发展这个组合转变。
随着发展上升,工人从第一产业(农业)转向第二产业(工业)转向第三和第四产业(服务) - 第一产业(primary sector)——提取原材料(农业、采矿、渔业)。
- 第二产业(secondary sector)——把原材料制造成物品。
机器人在工厂生产线上焊接:第二产业把原材料变成成品,越来越多地用自动化 - 第三产业(tertiary sector)——服务(零售、运输、医疗)。
- 第四产业(quaternary)和第五产业(quinary sectors)——信息、研究,和顶层决策。
较穷的经济依赖第一产业;较富的依赖第三和第四产业。韦伯最小成本理论(Weber's least-cost theory)解释工厂在哪里选址,平衡运输、劳动和集聚的成本。
Worked example(一道真实的 AP 考题)。 "解释去工业化如何影响了核心国家的经济。"(2025)满分答案:"随着工厂关闭或迁往国外,核心国家的经济从制造业转向服务业和高科技工作,所以许多制造业工人失去了工作,而新的第三和第四产业工作增长了。" 命令词 Explain(解释)要求机制:说出变化(制造业的流失)并且把它贯彻到它的经济影响。像"失业"这样的一个单词答案不够。
探索Which economic sector?
The primary sector extracts raw materials; the secondary sector manufactures goods; the tertiary sector provides services; the quaternary sector handles information and research.
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Primary sector 第一产业 dì yī chǎn yè Secondary sector 第二产业 dì èr chǎn yè Tertiary sector 第三产业 dì sān chǎn yè Quaternary 第四产业 dì sì chǎn yè Weber's least-cost theory 韦伯最小成本理论 wéi bó zuì xiǎo chéng běn lǐ lùn 7.3
发展的衡量指标
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge SPS-7
Industrialization, past and present, has facilitated improvements in standards of living, but it has also contributed to geographically uneven development.SPS-7.C
Describe social and economic measures of development.- SPS-7.C.1 Measures of social and economic development include Gross Domestic Product (GDP); Gross National Product (GNP); and Gross National Income (GNI) per capita; sectoral structure of an economy, both formal and informal; income distribution; fertility rates; infant mortality rates; access to health care; use of fossil fuels and renewable energy; and literacy rates.
- SPS-7.C.2 Measures of gender inequality, such as the Gender Inequality Index (GII), include reproductive health, indices of empowerment, and labor-market participation.
- SPS-7.C.3 The Human Development Index (HDI) is a composite measure used to show spatial variation among states in levels of development.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
发展(development)是改善人们经济和社会福祉的过程。它以几种方式测量:
- 人均国内生产总值(GDP)(Gross Domestic Product per capita)——每人的经济产出;一个常见但不完整的衡量。
- 人类发展指数(HDI)(Human Development Index)把收入、教育(受教育年数)和健康(预期寿命)结合成一个从 0 到 1 的分数——比单独金钱更完整的图画。
- 性别不平等指数(GII)(Gender Inequality Index)和基尼系数(Gini coefficient)(收入不平等)增加社会细节。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Development 发展 fā zhǎn Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita 人均国内生产总值 rén jūn guó nèi shēng chǎn zǒng zhí Human Development Index (HDI) 人类发展指数 rén lèi fā zhǎn zhǐ shù Gender Inequality Index (GII) 性别不平等指数 xìng bié bù píng děng zhǐ shù Gini coefficient 基尼系数 jī ní xì shù 7.4
妇女与经济发展
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge SPS-7
Industrialization, past and present, has facilitated improvements in standards of living, but it has also contributed to geographically uneven development.SPS-7.D
Explain how and to what extent changes in economic development have contributed to gender parity.- SPS-7.D.1 The roles of women change as countries develop economically.
- SPS-7.D.2 Although there are more women in the workforce, they do not have equity in wages or employment opportunities.
- SPS-7.D.3 Microloans have provided opportunities for women to create small local businesses, which have improved standards of living.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
女性的角色既是发展的一个原因也是一个衡量。
- 随着经济发展,更多女性进入有偿工作和教育,这提高家庭收入并降低生育率(与人口转变联系回去)。
- 小额信贷(microfinance)——小额贷款,常常给女性——帮助在较穷的地区创办企业。
- 报酬、土地所有权和教育上的性别差距阻碍发展;弥合它们是联合国的一个关键目标。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Microfinance 小额信贷 xiǎo é xìn dài 7.5
发展理论
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge SPS-7
Industrialization, past and present, has facilitated improvements in standards of living, but it has also contributed to geographically uneven development.SPS-7.E
Explain different theories of economic and social development.- SPS-7.E.1 Different theories, such as Rostow’s Stages of Economic Growth, Wallerstein’s World System Theory, dependency theory, and commodity dependence, help explain spatial variations in development.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
沃勒斯坦世界体系理论 罗斯托经济增长阶段论 两个著名的理论解释为什么一些地区富有而另一些贫穷。
罗斯托把发展看作经过五个阶段的一次攀登;批评者说它忽略全球不平等 - 罗斯托发展阶段(Rostow's stages of growth)——每个国家经过五个阶段攀登:传统社会、起飞前的先决条件、起飞、走向成熟,和大众消费时代。它乐观但假设所有国家能遵循同一条路径。
- 沃勒斯坦世界体系理论(Wallerstein's world-systems theory)把世界分成一个富有的核心(core)、一个较穷的边缘(periphery),和一个中间的半边缘(semi-periphery)。核心保持富有部分地通过使用边缘的廉价劳动和资源——一个挑战罗斯托的依附(dependency)观点。
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Rostow's stages of growth 罗斯托发展阶段 luó sī tuō fā zhǎn jiē duàn Wallerstein's world-systems theory 沃勒斯坦世界体系理论 wò lēi sī tǎn shì jiè tǐ xì lǐ lùn core 核心 hé xīn periphery 边缘 biān yuán semi-periphery 半边缘 bàn biān yuán dependency 依附 yī fù 7.6 7.7
贸易与世界经济
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge PSO-7
Economic and social development happen at different times and rates in different places.PSO-7.A
Explain causes and geographic consequences of recent economic changes such as the increase in international trade, deindustrialization, and growing interdependence in the world economy.- PSO-7.A.1 Complementarity and comparative advantage establish the basis for trade.
- PSO-7.A.2 Neoliberal policies, including free trade agreements, have created new organizations, spatial connections, and trade relationships, such as the EU, World Trade Organization (WTO), Mercosur, and OPEC, that foster greater globalization.
- PSO-7.A.3 Government initiatives at all scales may affect economic development, including tariffs.
- PSO-7.A.4 Global financial crises (e.g., debt crises), international lending agencies (e.g., the International Monetary Fund), and strategies of development (e.g., microlending) demonstrate how different economies have become more closely connected, even interdependent.
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge PSO-7
Economic and social development happen at different times and rates in different places.PSO-7.A
Explain causes and geographic consequences of recent economic changes such as the increase in international trade, deindustrialization, and growing interdependence in the world economy.- PSO-7.A.5 Outsourcing and economic restructuring have led to a decline in jobs in core regions and an increase in jobs in newly industrialized countries.
- PSO-7.A.6 In countries outside the core, the growth of industry has resulted in the creation of new manufacturing zones—including special economic zones, free-trade zones, and export- processing zones—and the emergence of an international division of labor in which developing countries have lower-paying jobs.
- PSO-7.A.7 The contemporary economic landscape has been transformed by post-Fordist methods of production, multiplier effects, economies of scale, agglomeration, just-in-time delivery, the emergence of service sectors, high technology industries, and growth poles.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
国家由贸易联系,它重塑发展。
- 比较优势(comparative advantage)意味着每个国家通过专门于它最高效制造的并为其余交易而获益。
- 互补性(complementarity)和新自由主义(neoliberal)自由贸易政策,加上像 WTO 和贸易集团(欧盟、USMCA)这样的组织,深化了全球化。
- 外包(outsourcing)和全球供应链把制造业移到较低成本的国家,改变世界的物品在哪里——以及由谁——制造。经济特区(special economic zones)用税收减免吸引这种投资。
Container ports link global trade: goods, capital and ideas move through the world economy 词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Comparative advantage 比较优势 bǐ jiào yōu shì Outsourcing 外包 wài bāo Special economic zones 经济特区 jīng jì tè qū 7.8
可持续发展
大纲
Enduring Understanding Learning Objective Essential Knowledge IMP-7
Environmental problems stemming from industrialization may be remedied through sustainable development strategies.IMP-7.A
Explain how sustainability principles relate to and impact industrialization and spatial development.- IMP-7.A.1 Sustainable development policies attempt to remedy problems stemming from natural-resource depletion, mass consumption, the effects of pollution, and the impact of climate change.
- IMP-7.A.2 Ecotourism is tourism based in natural environments—often environments that are threatened by looming industrialization or development—that frequently helps to protect the environment in question while also providing jobs for the local population.
- IMP-7.A.3 The UN’s Sustainable Development Goals help measure progress in development, such as small-scale finance and public transportation projects.
来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明
可持续发展(sustainable development)满足当前的需要而不伤害未来世代满足他们的能力。
- 它试图平衡经济增长、社会公平和环境保护——"三大支柱"。
- 生态旅游(ecotourism)和小规模的、可再生的项目能发展一个经济同时保护环境。
- 联合国的可持续发展目标(SDGs)(Sustainable Development Goals)为贫困、健康、教育和气候设定共享的目标——今天衡量进展的一个常见方式。
A solar farm: sustainable development balances growth with long-term environmental capacity 词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Sustainable development 可持续发展 kě chí xù fā zhǎn Ecotourism 生态旅游 shēng tài lǚ yóu Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) 可持续发展目标 kě chí xù fā zhǎn mù biāo 7.8
考试技巧
- 按部门(第一到第五产业)给工作分类并把这个组合与发展水平联系起来。
- 偏好 HDI 而不是人均 GDP ——它增加教育和预期寿命。
- 把罗斯托阶段与世界体系(核心和边缘)和依附理论对比。
- 在任何贸易答案里使用比较优势和关税的效应。
- 引入可持续发展和生态足迹以获得评价分数。