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无穷数列与级数

AP 微积分 BC · 第 10 主题

训练
讲义 词汇表
10.1

定义收敛与发散的无穷级数

大纲
Enduring UnderstandingLearning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

LIM-7
Applying limits may allow us to determine the finite sum of infinitely many terms.

LIM-7.A
Determine whether a series converges or diverges. BC ONLY

  • LIM-7.A.1 The $n$th partial sum is defined as the sum of the first $n$ terms of a series. BC ONLY
  • LIM-7.A.2 An infinite series of numbers converges to a real number $S$ (or has sum $S$), if and only if the limit of its sequence of partial sums exists and equals $S$. BC ONLY

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

一个无穷级数(infinite series)加起无穷多项,$\sum_{n=1}^\infty a_n$。它的值被定义为部分和(partial sums)$S_N=a_1+a_2+\cdots+a_N$ 的极限。若 $S_N$ 趋近一个有限数 $L$,级数收敛(converges)到 $L$;否则它发散(diverges)。每个收敛问题真的是一个关于部分和极限的问题。

一个收敛几何级数的部分和向 a 除以 1 减 r 爬升
对于 $a=1,\ r=\tfrac12$ 的几何级数,部分和 $S_1,S_2,S_3,\dots$ 向极限 $\dfrac{a}{1-r}=2$ 爬升——那个极限是级数的值。
词汇表 训练
英文 中文 拼音
infinite series 无穷级数 wú qióng jí shù
partial sums 部分和 bù fèn hé
converges 收敛 shōu liǎn
diverges 发散 fā sàn
geometric series 几何级数 jǐ hé jí shù
10.2

运用几何级数

大纲
Enduring UnderstandingLearning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

LIM-7
Applying limits may allow us to determine the finite sum of infinitely many terms.

LIM-7.A
Determine whether a series converges or diverges. BC ONLY

  • LIM-7.A.3 A geometric series is a series with a constant ratio between successive terms. BC ONLY
  • LIM-7.A.4 If $a$ is a real number and $r$ is a real number such that $|r| < 1$, then the geometric series $\sum_{n=0}^{\infty} ar^n = \dfrac{a}{1-r}$. BC ONLY

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

等比级数与收敛

一个几何级数(geometric series)$\sum ar^{n}$ 在项之间有一个常数(ratio)$r$。它恰好当 $|r|<1$ 时收敛,而那时

$$\sum_{n=0}^\infty ar^n=\frac{a}{1-r}.$$
这是你能精确求和的那一个级数,而它是这个单元后面幂级数的基础。

Worked example.$3+\tfrac32+\tfrac34+\tfrac38+\cdots$ 的和。这里 $a=3$$r=\tfrac12$(带 $|r|<1$),所以和是 $\dfrac{a}{1-r}=\dfrac{3}{1-\tfrac12}=6$

一个几何数列在每一步乘以相同的比
一个几何数列在每一步乘以相同的比
探索

When a geometric series converges

A geometric series $\sum ar^n$ converges only when $|r|<1$, summing to $\frac{a}{1-r}$. Change the ratio and watch the partial sums settle or blow up.

10.3

判断发散的第 n 项检验

大纲
Enduring UnderstandingLearning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

LIM-7
Applying limits may allow us to determine the finite sum of infinitely many terms.

LIM-7.A
Determine whether a series converges or diverges. BC ONLY

  • LIM-7.A.5 The $n$th term test is a test for divergence of a series. BC ONLY

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

若项不收缩到零,和就不能稳定:$\lim_{n\to\infty}a_n\neq0$,级数发散。这只是一个发散的判别法——若项确实趋于零,判别法不确定(级数仍可能发散,像调和级数)。总是先检查这个快速的判别法。

10.4

判断收敛的积分检验

大纲
Enduring UnderstandingLearning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

LIM-7
Applying limits may allow us to determine the finite sum of infinitely many terms.

LIM-7.A
Determine whether a series converges or diverges. BC ONLY

  • LIM-7.A.6 The integral test is a method to determine whether a series converges or diverges. BC ONLY

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

若对于一个正的、递减的、连续的 $f$$a_n=f(n)$,那么 $\sum a_n$$\int_1^\infty f(x)\,dx$ 都收敛或都发散积分判别法(integral test)把一个级数问题变成一个反常积分问题,而它是证明下面 p-级数规则的依据。

词汇表 训练
英文 中文 拼音
integral test 积分判别法 jī fēn pàn bié fǎ
10.5

调和级数与 p-级数

大纲
Enduring UnderstandingLearning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

LIM-7
Applying limits may allow us to determine the finite sum of infinitely many terms.

LIM-7.A
Determine whether a series converges or diverges. BC ONLY

  • LIM-7.A.7 In addition to geometric series, common series of numbers include the harmonic series, the alternating harmonic series, and $p$-series. BC ONLY

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

一个 p-级数(p-series)$\sum \dfrac{1}{n^p}$ $p>1$ 收敛$p\le1$ 发散。特殊情况 $p=1$,$\sum\dfrac1n$,是调和级数(harmonic series)——它发散,即使它的项趋于零(一个著名的、必知的事实)。p-级数族是比较判别法的标准尺度。

词汇表 训练
英文 中文 拼音
harmonic series 调和级数 tiáo hé jí shù
10.6

判断收敛的比较检验

大纲
Enduring UnderstandingLearning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

LIM-7
Applying limits may allow us to determine the finite sum of infinitely many terms.

LIM-7.A
Determine whether a series converges or diverges. BC ONLY

  • LIM-7.A.8 The comparison test is a method to determine whether a series converges or diverges. BC ONLY
  • LIM-7.A.9 The limit comparison test is a method to determine whether a series converges or diverges. BC ONLY

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

把一个不熟悉的级数与一个已知的(一个 p-级数或几何级数)比较:

  • 直接比较(direct comparison):若 $0\le a_n\le b_n$$\sum b_n$ 收敛,$\sum a_n$ 也收敛;若 $a_n\ge b_n\ge0$$\sum b_n$ 发散,$\sum a_n$ 也发散。
  • 极限比较(limit comparison):若 $\lim\dfrac{a_n}{b_n}$ 是一个有限正数,这两个级数做相同的事。当项只是表现得像一个已知级数时这更容易。
词汇表 训练
英文 中文 拼音
Direct comparison 直接比较 zhí jiē bǐ jiào
Limit comparison 极限比较 jí xiàn bǐ jiào
10.7

判断收敛的交错级数检验

大纲
Enduring UnderstandingLearning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

LIM-7
Applying limits may allow us to determine the finite sum of infinitely many terms.

LIM-7.A
Determine whether a series converges or diverges. BC ONLY

  • LIM-7.A.10 The alternating series test is a method to determine whether an alternating series converges. BC ONLY

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

一个交错级数(alternating series)有交换符号的项,$\sum(-1)^n b_n$。它收敛,若 $b_n$ 是正的、递减的,而 $\lim b_n=0$。这让像 $\sum\dfrac{(-1)^n}{n}$ 这样的级数收敛,即使没有符号的相同项(调和级数)发散。

词汇表 训练
英文 中文 拼音
alternating series 交错级数 jiāo cuò jí shù
10.8

判断收敛的比值检验

大纲
Enduring UnderstandingLearning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

LIM-7
Applying limits may allow us to determine the finite sum of infinitely many terms.

LIM-7.A
Determine whether a series converges or diverges. BC ONLY

  • LIM-7.A.11 The ratio test is a method to determine whether a series of numbers converges or diverges. BC ONLY
    • Exclusion statement: The nth term test for divergence, and the integral test, comparison test, limit comparison test, alternating series test, and ratio test for convergence are assessed on the AP Calculus BC Exam. Other methods are not assessed on the exam. However, teachers may include additional methods in the course, if time permits.

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

比值判别法(ratio test)考察 $L=\lim_{n\to\infty}\left|\dfrac{a_{n+1}}{a_n}\right|$:

  • $L<1$:级数绝对收敛;
  • $L>1$:它发散;
  • $L=1$:不确定

它是带阶乘(factorials)或 $n$ 次幂的级数的首选判别法,而它正是你如何找到一个幂级数的收敛半径。

Worked example. 判别 $\displaystyle\sum \frac{n}{2^n}$。比是 $\left|\dfrac{a_{n+1}}{a_n}\right|=\dfrac{n+1}{2^{n+1}}\cdot\dfrac{2^n}{n}=\dfrac{n+1}{2n}\to\dfrac12<1$,所以级数收敛

词汇表 训练
英文 中文 拼音
ratio test 比值判别法 bǐ zhí pàn bié fǎ
10.9

判断绝对收敛或条件收敛

大纲
Enduring UnderstandingLearning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

LIM-7
Applying limits may allow us to determine the finite sum of infinitely many terms.

LIM-7.A
Determine whether a series converges or diverges. BC ONLY

  • LIM-7.A.12 A series may be absolutely convergent, conditionally convergent, or divergent. BC ONLY
  • LIM-7.A.13 If a series converges absolutely, then it converges. BC ONLY
  • LIM-7.A.14 If a series converges absolutely, then any series obtained from it by regrouping or rearranging the terms has the same value. BC ONLY

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

一个级数绝对收敛(converges absolutely)若 $\sum|a_n|$ 收敛。它条件收敛(converges conditionally)若 $\sum a_n$ 收敛但 $\sum|a_n|$ 发散(经典的例子是 $\sum\dfrac{(-1)^n}{n}$)。绝对收敛是更强的性质;条件收敛依赖符号的抵消。

词汇表 训练
英文 中文 拼音
converges absolutely 绝对收敛 jué duì shōu liǎn
converges conditionally 条件收敛 tiáo jiàn shōu liǎn
10.10

交错级数的误差界

大纲
Enduring UnderstandingLearning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

LIM-7
Applying limits may allow us to determine the finite sum of infinitely many terms.

LIM-7.B
Approximate the sum of a series. BC ONLY

  • LIM-7.B.1 If an alternating series converges by the alternating series test, then the alternating series error bound can be used to bound how far a partial sum is from the value of the infinite series. BC ONLY

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

对于一个收敛的交错级数,在第 $N$ 个部分和停止的误差不大于第一个省略的项:

$$|S-S_N|\le b_{N+1}.$$
这个简单、强大的界让你能说多少项保证一个想要的准确度。

10.11

求函数的泰勒多项式近似

大纲
Enduring UnderstandingLearning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

LIM-8
Power series allow us to represent associated functions on an appropriate interval.

LIM-8.A
Represent a function at a point as a Taylor polynomial. BC ONLY

  • LIM-8.A.1 The coefficient of the $n$th degree term in a Taylor polynomial for a function $f$ centered at $x = a$ is $\dfrac{f^{(n)}(a)}{n!}$. BC ONLY
  • LIM-8.A.2 In many cases, as the degree of a Taylor polynomial increases, the $n$th degree polynomial will approach the original function over some interval. BC ONLY

LIM-8.B
Approximate function values using a Taylor polynomial. BC ONLY

  • LIM-8.B.1 Taylor polynomials for a function $f$ centered at $x = a$ can be used to approximate function values of $f$ near $x = a$. BC ONLY

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

泰勒级数逼近

一个泰勒多项式(Taylor polynomial)用一个函数在中心 $x=a$ 处的导数近似它:

$$P_n(x)=\sum_{k=0}^{n}\frac{f^{(k)}(a)}{k!}(x-a)^k.$$
每个增加的项匹配多一个导数,所以多项式在 $a$ 附近更紧密地贴合曲线。在 $a=0$ 处为中心它是一个麦克劳林多项式(Maclaurin polynomial)。

sin x 的泰勒多项式随着次数增长更紧密地贴合曲线
$\sin x$ 的麦克劳林多项式——$T_1=x$$T_3$$T_5$——每个在 $0$ 处匹配多一个导数,所以每个在偏离之前在更宽的区间上贴合 $\sin x$

考试技能: 能够从一张导数值的表构建一个泰勒多项式并用它来估计一个函数值。

词汇表 训练
英文 中文 拼音
Taylor polynomial 泰勒多项式 tài lēi duō xiàng shì
10.12

拉格朗日误差界

大纲
Enduring UnderstandingLearning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

LIM-8
Power series allow us to represent associated functions on an appropriate interval.

LIM-8.C
Determine the error bound associated with a Taylor polynomial approximation. BC ONLY

  • LIM-8.C.1 The Lagrange error bound can be used to determine a maximum interval for the error of a Taylor polynomial approximation to a function. BC ONLY
  • LIM-8.C.2 In some situations, the alternating series error bound can be used to bound the error of a Taylor polynomial approximation to the value of a function. BC ONLY

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

拉格朗日误差界(Lagrange error bound)界定一个泰勒多项式能离真值多远:

$$|R_n(x)|\le\frac{\max\big|f^{(n+1)}(z)\big|}{(n+1)!}\,|x-a|^{\,n+1}.$$
你在区间上界定第 $(n+1)$ 个导数,然后计算——证明一个泰勒估计足够准确的标准方式。

词汇表 训练
英文 中文 拼音
Lagrange error bound 拉格朗日误差界 lā gé lǎng rì wù chā jiè
10.13

幂级数的收敛半径与收敛区间

大纲
Enduring UnderstandingLearning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

LIM-8
Power series allow us to represent associated functions on an appropriate interval.

LIM-8.D
Determine the radius of convergence and interval of convergence for a power series. BC ONLY

  • LIM-8.D.1 A power series is a series of the form $\sum_{n=0}^{\infty} a_n (x-r)^n$, where $n$ is a non-negative integer, $\{a_n\}$ is a sequence of real numbers, and $r$ is a real number. BC ONLY
  • LIM-8.D.2 If a power series converges, it either converges at a single point or has an interval of convergence. BC ONLY
  • LIM-8.D.3 The ratio test can be used to determine the radius of convergence of a power series. BC ONLY
  • LIM-8.D.4 The radius of convergence of a power series can be used to identify an open interval on which the series converges, but it is necessary to test both endpoints of the interval to determine the interval of convergence. BC ONLY
  • LIM-8.D.5 If a power series has a positive radius of convergence, then the power series is the Taylor series of the function to which it converges over the open interval. BC ONLY
  • LIM-8.D.6 The radius of convergence of a power series obtained by term-by-term differentiation or term-by-term integration is the same as the radius of convergence of the original power series. BC ONLY

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

一个幂级数(power series)$\sum c_n(x-a)^n$ 对中心 $a$ 的一个收敛半径(radius of convergence)$R$ 之内的 $x$ 收敛。用比值判别法$R$。然后分别测试两个端点(比值判别法在那里不确定)以陈述完整的收敛区间(interval of convergence)——包括或排除每个端点。

Worked example.$\displaystyle\sum \frac{x^n}{n}$ 的收敛半径。比值判别法给出 $\left|\dfrac{x^{n+1}}{n+1}\cdot\dfrac{n}{x^n}\right|=|x|\dfrac{n}{n+1}\to|x|$,它在 $|x|<1$$<1$,所以 $R=1$。测试端点,$x=-1$ 给出收敛的交错调和级数而 $x=1$ 给出发散的调和级数,所以区间是 $[-1,1)$

词汇表 训练
英文 中文 拼音
power series 幂级数 mì jí shù
radius of convergence 收敛半径 shōu liǎn bàn jìng
interval of convergence 收敛区间 shōu liǎn qū jiān
10.14

求函数的泰勒级数或麦克劳林级数

大纲
Enduring UnderstandingLearning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

LIM-8
Power series allow us to represent associated functions on an appropriate interval.

LIM-8.E
Represent a function as a Taylor series or a Maclaurin series. BC ONLY

  • LIM-8.E.1 A Taylor polynomial for $f(x)$ is a partial sum of the Taylor series for $f(x)$. BC ONLY

LIM-8.F
Interpret Taylor series and Maclaurin series. BC ONLY

  • LIM-8.F.1 The Maclaurin series for $\dfrac{1}{1-x}$ is a geometric series. BC ONLY
  • LIM-8.F.2 The Maclaurin series for $\sin x$, $\cos x$, and $e^x$ provides the foundation for constructing the Maclaurin series for other functions. BC ONLY

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

把一个泰勒多项式扩展到无穷多项给出一个泰勒(或麦克劳林)级数。记住关键的麦克劳林级数:

$$e^x=\sum\frac{x^n}{n!},\quad \sin x=\sum\frac{(-1)^n x^{2n+1}}{(2n+1)!},\quad \cos x=\sum\frac{(-1)^n x^{2n}}{(2n)!},\quad \frac{1}{1-x}=\sum x^n.$$
新级数来自处理这些——代入、求导、积分,或相乘。

Worked example.$e^{x^2}$ 的麦克劳林级数。在 $e^x=\sum\dfrac{x^n}{n!}$ 里用 $x^2$$x$:

$$e^{x^2}=\sum_{n=0}^{\infty}\frac{(x^2)^n}{n!}=1+x^2+\frac{x^4}{2!}+\frac{x^6}{3!}+\cdots,$$
它对所有 $x$ 收敛。这个代入技巧远快于把 $e^{x^2}$ 求导六次。

每个额外的麦克劳林项在更宽的范围上贴合函数
每个额外的麦克劳林项在更宽的范围上贴合函数
探索

The function a Taylor series approximates

y = asin(bx + c) + d

A Taylor series builds a function from its derivatives at a point; more terms hug the curve (here $\sin x$) over a wider range.

10.15

将函数表示为幂级数

大纲
Enduring UnderstandingLearning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

LIM-8
Power series allow us to represent associated functions on an appropriate interval.

LIM-8.G
Represent a given function as a power series. BC ONLY

  • LIM-8.G.1 Using a known series, a power series for a given function can be derived using operations such as term-by-term differentiation or term-by-term integration, and by various methods (e.g., algebraic processes, substitutions, or using properties of geometric series). BC ONLY

来源:美国大学理事会 AP 课程与考试说明

因为一个幂级数能被逐项求导和积分(在它的半径之内),你能从已知的构建新级数——例如,积分 $\dfrac{1}{1-x}$ 的几何级数以得到 $-\ln(1-x)=\sum_{n\ge 1}\dfrac{x^n}{n}$ 的级数,或代入 $-x^2$ 以得到 $\dfrac{1}{1+x^2}$ 的级数。把一个函数表示为一个幂级数让你能近似那些没有初等原函数的值和积分。

考试技能: BC 级数自由回答通常要求你从一个已知的推导一个新的麦克劳林级数、求它的收敛区间,并用交错级数或拉格朗日界来估计误差——课程的顶点技能。

10.15

考试技巧

  • 用正确的工具判别一个级数的收敛:几何($|r|<1$,和 $\tfrac{a}{1-r}$)、$n$ 次项、比值、积分、比较,或交错级数判别法。
  • 一个几何无穷和只在 $|r|<1$ 时收敛;否则它发散。
  • 构建一个泰勒/麦克劳林级数来近似一个函数;更多项在中心附近给出更好的贴合。
  • 知道 $e^x$$\sin x$$\cos x$$\tfrac{1}{1-x}$ 的标准麦克劳林级数。
  • 用比值判别法求收敛半径/区间,然后分别检查端点。

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