Representing Functions as Power Series
Introduced| English |
|---|
| power series/ˈpaʊə ˈsɪəriːz/ |
Reusing known series to build new ones
- You don't have to compute every Taylor series from derivatives. Manipulate the ones you know.
- Start from the geometric series $\frac{1}{1-x}=\sum x^n$ or the $e^x,\sin,\cos$ series.
- Substitute, multiply, differentiate, or integrate to represent a new function as a power series 幂级数.
- It's algebra on series — fast and clever.
Substitution and multiplication
- Substitute an expression for $x$: replace $x$ with $-x^2$ in $\frac1{1-x}$ to get $\frac{1}{1+x^2}=\sum(-x^2)^n=\sum(-1)^n x^{2n}$.
- Multiply a series by a power of $x$ or a constant: $x\cdot e^x=\sum\frac{x^{n+1}}{n!}$.
- Each move keeps a valid power series (adjust the interval of convergence for substitutions).
- No new derivatives needed — just plug and combine.
Built from the geometric series
y = a / (1 − b·x)
Substituting $-x^2$ into $\tfrac{1}{1-x}=\sum x^n$ builds the series for $\tfrac{1}{1+x^2}$ — no new derivatives needed.
Substituting $u=-x^2$ into $\tfrac{1}{1-u}=\sum u^n$ gives $\tfrac{1}{1+x^2}=$
$(-x^2)^n=(-1)^n x^{2n}$.
Which moves generate new power series from known ones?
Substitute, scale/multiply, differentiate, integrate — not random reordering.
Differentiating and integrating term by term
- Inside its interval of convergence, a power series can be differentiated or integrated term by term.
- Integrate $\frac{1}{1+x^2}=\sum(-1)^n x^{2n}$ to get $\arctan x=\sum\frac{(-1)^n x^{2n+1}}{2n+1}$.
- Differentiate a series to get the series of the derivative.
- These moves generate famous series (like $\arctan$ and $\ln(1+x)$) from simpler ones.
Within its interval of convergence, a power series can be differentiated and integrated term by term.
A valid move inside the interval of convergence.
Integrating $\sum(-1)^n x^{2n}$ term by term gives the series for...
$\int\tfrac{1}{1+x^2}\,dx=\arctan x$.
A powerful toolkit
- Substitute, scale, multiply, differentiate, integrate — five moves, endless new series.
- This is often far faster than computing high derivatives directly.
- The new series inherits (roughly) the radius of convergence of the one you started from.
- Recognizing which move to apply is the real skill.
Integrating a power series term by term introduces a constant ____, fixed by a known value.
E.g. $\arctan 0=0$ fixes $C=0$.
Substituting $x\to -x^2$ can change the interval of convergence.
Re-derive the interval in the new variable.
Term-by-term differentiation and integration are valid only within the interval of convergence (and integrating adds a $+C$ — pin it down with a known value, e.g. $\arctan 0=0$). When you substitute (like $x\to -x^2$), the interval of convergence changes too — re-derive it from the new variable.
Find a power series for $\dfrac{1}{1+x^2}$.
- Start from $\dfrac{1}{1-u}=\sum u^n$ and substitute $u=-x^2$.
- $\dfrac{1}{1+x^2}=\sum_{n=0}^\infty(-x^2)^n=\sum_{n=0}^\infty(-1)^n x^{2n}=1-x^2+x^4-\cdots$ (for $|x|<1$).
To represent a function as a power series, manipulate a known series: substitute, multiply/scale, or differentiate/integrate term by term (valid within the interval of convergence; integration adds $+C$). E.g. substituting into $\frac{1}{1-x}$ and integrating yields the series for $\frac{1}{1+x^2}$ and $\arctan x$.