Microeconomic Decision-Makers
IGCSE Economics Topic 3 12:39 English narration · English + 中文 subtitles burned in
Chapters
Transcript
You have a fish. You want a pair of shoes.
你有一条鱼，你想要一双鞋。
Long ago that meant barter — swapping goods directly.
在很久以前，这意味着物物交换——直接拿东西换东西。
And to do it, you need to find someone who has shoes, and who wants a fish, right now.
要做到这一点，你必须找到一个人：他有鞋，而且此刻正好想要一条鱼。
If the shoemaker wants bread instead, no trade happens at all.
如果鞋匠想要的是面包，这笔交易就根本做不成。
Money solves it in one move. Sell the fish to anyone; buy the shoes from anyone.
货币一步就解决了： 把鱼卖给任何人，再从任何人那里买鞋。
That is the whole idea, and it is where this topic starts.
这就是全部的想法，也是这一单元的起点。
Welcome to Topic Three, which is about the three decision-makers inside an economy: households, workers, and firms.
欢迎来到第三单元，讲的是经济中的三类决策者：家庭、工人和企业。
But first, money.
不过先讲货币。
Money does four jobs, and the exam wants all four by name.
货币有四项职能，考试要求你把四项都点出名字。
A medium of exchange: you swap money for goods, so you never need barter.
交换媒介：你用钱换物品， 所以永远不需要以物易物。
A store of value: you can hold it now and spend it later, because it keeps its value.
价值储藏：你可以现在持有它、以后再花，因为它能保值。
A unit of account: money measures and compares what things are worth — that is what a price is.
记账单位：货币衡量并比较东西值多少——这就是价格的含义。
And a means of deferred payment: you can buy now and pay later.
以及延期支付手段：你可以现在买、以后付钱。
Good money must have certain characteristics. Durable, so it lasts.
好的货币必须具备一些特性。
Portable, so it is easy to carry. Divisible, so it splits into small amounts for small payments. Limited in supply, hard to copy, and accepted by everyone.
耐用，所以能用很久；便于携带，所以容易带在身上； 可分割，所以能拆成小额来支付小笔款项；供给有限、难以仿造，而且人人都接受。
Now the banks, and there are two kinds.
接下来讲银行，银行有两类。
The central bank is the government's bank — one per country. It issues the notes, looks after the banking system, and sets interest rates.
中央银行是政府的银行，每个国家只有一家： 它发行纸币、管理整个银行体系，并制定利率。
Commercial banks are the ordinary banks people and firms use: they keep savings safe, lend money, and let people pay each other.
商业银行是人们和企业日常使用的普通银行：它们保管存款、放贷，并让人们互相支付。
A household is a person or a group living together and making money decisions.
家庭，是一个人或者住在一起、共同做金钱决定的一群人。
With its income there are three things it can do: spend it, save it, or borrow against it.
拿到收入以后，它可以做三件事：花掉、存起来，或者借钱。
Saving is income that is not spent now. Borrowing is spending money you do not have yet, and paying it back later, usually with a charge on top.
储蓄是现在没有花掉的收入；借贷是花你还没有的钱，以后再还，通常还要多付一笔费用。
Three things change those choices.
有三样东西会改变这些选择。
More income means people spend more and save more.
收入更多，人们花得更多，也存得更多。
A higher interest rate makes saving more rewarding and borrowing dearer, so saving rises and borrowing falls.
利率更高，储蓄更划算、借钱更贵，所以储蓄上升、借贷下降。
And confidence: when people feel sure about their jobs they spend and borrow more; when they are worried, they save.
还有信心：人们对工作有把握时，就花得多、借得多；心里发慌时，就多存钱。
Now workers. When a worker chooses an occupation — that is, a type of job — two kinds of factor matter. Wage factors are the pay: the wage is the money you earn, and higher pay attracts more workers. Non-wage factors are everything else, and there are more of them than students expect. Working hours. Holidays. How safe or how pleasant the job is. Whether you actually enjoy the work. The distance from home. And the chance to be promoted to a higher job later. In an exam answer, name at least two non-wage factors — that is where the marks are.
现在讲工人。 当一个工人选择职业——也就是选择一类工作时——有两种因素起作用。 工资因素就是报酬：工资是你挣到的钱，报酬越高，吸引的工人越多。 非工资因素是除此之外的一切，而且比学生以为的要多：工作时间、假期、 这份工作有多安全或多愉快、你是不是真的喜欢这份工作、离家有多远， 以及以后能不能升到更高的职位。 在考试作答时，至少说出两个非工资因素——分数就在那里。
Why are workers not all paid the same?
为什么工人的报酬不一样？
Four reasons to know.
有四个原因要记住。
Skill and qualifications: a worker who is hard to replace, or who studied for years, earns more.
技能和资格： 一个难以被替代、或者读了很多年书的工人，挣得更多。
Danger: risky or dirty jobs may pay more, simply to attract anyone at all.
危险： 有风险或者脏累的工作可能给更高的钱，纯粹是为了吸引到人。
A trade union is a group of workers who join together to bargain for better pay and conditions — a strong union can raise pay.
工会是工人们联合起来、为更好的报酬和工作条件谈判的组织——强大的工会可以提高工资。
And discrimination: unfair treatment because of gender, race or age, which causes pay gaps that are not deserved.
还有歧视：因为性别、种族或年龄而受到的不公平对待，造成了不该存在的工资差距。
Now, all four work through one market underneath: the market for that kind of worker.
不过，这四个原因背后都是同一个市场：这类工人的市场。
The supply of workers slopes up, because a higher wage brings more people forward. The demand for workers slopes down, because firms hire fewer as pay rises.
工人的供给曲线向上倾斜，因为工资越高，愿意来做的人越多； 工人的需求曲线向下倾斜，因为工资越高，企业雇的人越少。
Where the two lines cross is the wage.
两条线相交的地方，就是工资。
And here is the exam move: when many firms want skilled workers, the whole demand line shifts to the right, and the wage rises to a new crossing point.
考试要考的动作在这里：当很多企业都想要熟练工人时，整条需求曲线向右移动， 工资就在新的交点上升高。
Division of labour, also called specialisation, means splitting a job into small tasks, with each worker doing one task again and again.
劳动分工，也叫专业化，意思是把一份工作拆成许多小任务， 每个工人一遍又一遍地做其中一个任务。
The advantages: workers get faster and better at their one task, no time is wasted moving between tasks, and output rises. But the exam always wants the disadvantages too.
好处是：工人在自己那一个任务上变得更快更熟练， 在任务之间转换不再浪费时间，产量因此提高。
Doing one task is boring, so workers make mistakes or leave. If one worker is absent the whole line can stop. And each worker learns only one skill, which makes them hard to move elsewhere.
但考试总是同时要求说出坏处： 重复做一个任务很枯燥，工人会出错，或者干脆辞职；一个工人缺席，整条生产线可能停下来； 而且每个工人只学会一种技能，很难转到别处去做别的事。
On to firms.
接下来讲企业。
We can measure size three ways: the number of workers, the amount of capital used, or the output.
衡量规模有三种方式：工人的数量、使用的资本量，或者产量。
Now, why do some firms stay small on purpose? The market itself may be small.
那么，为什么有些企业故意保持小规模呢？
The product may be personal, like a hairdresser's. The owner may want to keep control. Or there may simply be no money to grow.
可能市场本身就很小； 可能产品是很个人化的，比如理发；可能老板想牢牢掌控自己的生意； 也可能就是没有钱去扩张。
And firms can also close: business failure comes from costs that are too high, too few sales, poor management, too many rivals, not enough cash, or a fall in demand.
企业也会倒闭：企业倒闭的原因有成本太高、销量太少、 管理不善、竞争对手太多、现金不够，或者需求下降。
A firm can also grow by joining another firm — a merger, or a takeover.
企业还可以通过与另一家企业合并来成长——合并，或者收购。
Three types, and they are almost guaranteed marks.
有三种类型，几乎是稳拿的分。
A horizontal merger joins two firms at the same stage of the same industry: two car makers.
横向合并，是同一行业、同一阶段的两家企业合并：比如两家汽车制造商。
A vertical merger joins two firms at different stages of the same industry: a car maker and a tyre maker.
纵向合并，是同一行业、不同阶段的两家企业合并：比如一家汽车厂和一家轮胎厂。
Backward is towards the supplier; forward is towards the seller.
向后是朝供应商方向，向前是朝销售方向。
And a conglomerate merger joins two firms in completely different industries: a car maker and a food company.
混合合并，是两家完全不同行业的企业合并：比如一家汽车厂和一家食品公司。
Same stage, same industry — horizontal. Different stage, same industry — vertical. Different industry — conglomerate.
同阶段、同行业是横向；不同阶段、同行业是纵向；不同行业是混合。
Two ways to produce.
生产有两种方式。
Labour-intensive production uses a lot of workers and little machinery — hand-made crafts, for example.
劳动密集型生产使用很多工人、很少机器——比如手工艺品。
Capital-intensive production uses a lot of machines and few workers — a modern car factory.
资本密集型生产使用很多机器、很少工人——比如现代化的汽车工厂。
Productivity means output per worker, in a set time.
生产率指的是在一定时间内，每个工人的产出。
Raise productivity and each worker makes more, so the cost of each unit falls.
生产率提高，每个工人产出更多， 于是每单位产品的成本下降。
Training, better machines and good management all raise it.
培训、更好的机器和良好的管理都能提高它。
And remember firms buy the four factors of production — land, labour, capital and enterprise — in markets of their own: if many firms want skilled workers, the wage for those workers rises.
还要记住，企业是在自己的市场上购买四种生产要素——土地、劳动、资本和企业家才能——的： 如果很多企业都想要熟练工人，这些工人的工资就会上涨。
Demand and supply, applied to labour.
这就是需求与供给，用在劳动上。
Now one of the most examined ideas in the whole subject.
现在讲整门课里最常考的概念之一。
As a firm grows, the cost of each unit changes.
随着企业成长，每单位产品的成本会变化。
Economies of scale: as output rises, the average cost of each unit falls.
规模经济：产量上升时，每单位的平均成本下降。
Why?
为什么？
Buying materials in bulk is cheaper, big machines work more efficiently, and large firms borrow money more cheaply.
因为大批量采购原材料更便宜，大型机器运转效率更高，大企业借钱的利率也更低。
But grow too big and you get diseconomies of scale: the average cost of each unit starts to rise again.
但如果长得太大，就会出现规模不经济：每单位的平均成本又开始上升。
Why?
为什么？
A huge firm is hard to manage, messages travel slowly, and workers feel less important.
因为庞大的企业难以管理，信息传递缓慢，工人也会觉得自己不重要。
That gives the shape of the curve: average cost falls, reaches a lowest point, then rises.
这就决定了曲线的形状：平均成本先下降，到达最低点，然后上升。
Draw that U and label both halves.
把这个 U 形画出来，并把两边都标注清楚。
One more pair of words the exam asks for by name.
还有一对考试会点名要的词。
Internal economies of scale come from the firm's own size — its own bulk buying, its own bigger machines.
内部规模经济来自企业自身的规模——它自己的大批量采购、它自己的大型机器。
External economies of scale come from the whole industry growing around it, such as a pool of trained workers nearby.
外部规模经济来自整个行业在它周围成长起来，比如附近有一批训练有素的工人。
Costs split two ways, and this is a favourite question.
成本分为两类，这也是常考的题。
Fixed costs do not change with output — rent, insurance. You pay them even if you make nothing.
固定成本不随产量变化——比如租金、保险； 哪怕你什么都不生产，也要付。
Variable costs do change with output — materials, power. More output, more variable cost.
可变成本随产量变化——比如原材料、电力； 产量越多，可变成本越多。
Add them and you get total cost.
两者相加，就得到总成本。
Then average cost is the cost of each single unit: total cost divided by the number of units made.
平均成本，是每一单位产品的成本：总成本除以生产的单位数。
On the revenue side, total revenue is price times quantity sold, and average revenue is total revenue divided by quantity — which is just the price again.
在收益这一边：总收益等于价格乘以销售数量； 平均收益等于总收益除以数量——那其实就是价格本身。
Let's do one.
我们来做一道。
A firm has fixed costs of two thousand pounds and variable costs of three pounds per unit.
一家企业的固定成本是两千英镑，可变成本是每单位三英镑。
It makes five hundred units and sells them at ten pounds each.
它生产五百个单位，每个卖十英镑。
Find the total cost, the total revenue, the profit, and the average cost.
求总成本、总收益、利润和平均成本。
Variable cost is three times five hundred, which is one thousand five hundred. So total cost is two thousand plus one thousand five hundred, which is three thousand five hundred.
可变成本是三乘以五百，等于一千五百；所以总成本是两千加一千五百，等于三千五百。
Total revenue is ten times five hundred, which is five thousand.
总收益是十乘以五百，等于五千。
Profit is total revenue minus total cost, so profit is one thousand five hundred pounds.
利润等于总收益减总成本，所以利润是一千五百英镑。
Average cost is three thousand five hundred divided by five hundred, which is seven pounds a unit.
平均成本是三千五百除以五百，等于每单位七英镑。
And there is why the firm makes a profit: the price, ten pounds, is above the average cost of seven.
企业赚钱的原因就在这里：价格十英镑，高于七英镑的平均成本。
Most firms want as much profit as possible.
大多数企业都想赚尽可能多的利润。
But do not assume that is the only goal, because questions often turn on the others.
但不要以为那是唯一的目标， 因为考题常常就考在别的目标上。
Survival: a brand-new firm first just wants to stay open.
生存：一家刚成立的企业，首先只想活下来。
Growth: getting bigger, to gain economies of scale and market power.
增长：变得更大，以获得规模经济和市场影响力。
And social objectives: some firms aim to help people or protect the environment, not only to earn profit.
社会目标： 有些企业的目的是帮助他人或者保护环境，而不只是赚利润。
When a question asks whether a firm made a good decision, ask which objective it was chasing.
当题目问一家企业的决定好不好时，先问它追求的是哪一个目标。
Finally, markets differ by how many firms there are, and how hard it is for a new firm to join.
最后，市场的差别在于有多少家企业，以及新企业进入有多难。
A competitive market has many firms selling similar goods, and entry is easy — that is strong competition.
竞争性市场有很多企业销售相似的物品，而且进入很容易。
Firms must keep prices low and quality high or buyers go elsewhere, so they cut costs and invent new products.
企业必须保持低价格和高质量，否则买家就跑了；所以它们努力降低成本、开发新产品。
Good for consumers.
这对消费者有利。
Harder for the firms, though: profit is lower, and they must work hard just to stay open.
但对企业来说更辛苦：利润更低，而且必须拼命干才能活下去。
A monopoly is a market with only one firm, or one firm controlling most of it.
垄断是只有一家企业、或者一家企业控制了大部分的市场。
New firms cannot get in because of barriers to entry — very high start-up costs, or the one firm controlling key supplies.
新企业进不来，因为存在进入壁垒——非常高的启动成本，或者那家企业控制了关键的供应。
It charges high prices, and there is little pressure to improve.
它可以定高价，而且几乎没有改进的压力。
For the firm itself that means higher profit and an easier life, though a firm with no rivals can grow lazy.
对这家企业本身来说，这意味着更高的利润和更轻松的日子， 不过没有对手的企业也可能变懒。
But give both sides: a large monopoly may gain economies of scale, and may spend its profit on research.
但要把两面都写出来： 大型垄断企业可能获得规模经济，也可能把利润用在研发上。
Five marks students throw away.
五个学生常丢的分。
First, learn the three formulas exactly: profit is total revenue minus total cost; total revenue is price times quantity; average cost is total cost divided by the number of units.
第一，把三个公式一字不差地记住： 利润等于总收益减总成本；总收益等于价格乘以数量；平均成本等于总成本除以单位数。
Second, the merger types turn on two words — same stage of the same industry is horizontal, different stages of the same industry is vertical, different industries is conglomerate.
第二，合并的类型只看两个词——同行业同阶段是横向，同行业不同阶段是纵向， 不同行业是混合。
Third, always give both sides.
第三，永远要写出两面。
Division of labour, monopoly and growth all have advantages and disadvantages, and a one-sided answer cannot reach the top band.
劳动分工、垄断和企业增长， 都同时有好处和坏处；只写一面的答案，拿不到最高档的分数。
And fourth, money does four jobs, not two. Medium of exchange, store of value, unit of account, means of deferred payment.
第四，货币有四项职能，不是两项：交换媒介、价值储藏、记账单位、延期支付手段。
Most students name the first two and stop.
大多数学生只说出前两个就停了。
And fifth, fixed costs do not change with output — rent, insurance — while variable costs do: materials, power.
第五，固定成本不随产量变化——比如租金、保险； 而可变成本会变——比如原材料、电力。
Total cost is the two added together, and students mix that pair up every year.
总成本就是这两者相加，这一对学生年年搞混。
Five things to take with you.
带走五件事。
First, economies of scale can be internal — from the firm's own size — or external, from the whole industry growing.
第一，规模经济可以是内部的——来自企业自身的规模——也可以是外部的，来自整个行业的扩大。
Second, a monopoly lasts because of barriers to entry: high start-up costs, or control of key supplies.
第二，垄断能维持，是因为进入壁垒：开办成本很高，或者控制了关键原料。
Third, firms fail when costs are too high, sales are too few, management is poor, or cash runs out.
第三，企业会倒闭，因为成本太高、销量太少、管理很差，或者现金不够。
Fourth, besides profit, a new firm may just want survival, or a social aim.
第四，除了利润，新企业可能只求生存，或者有社会目标。
Fifth, money must be durable, portable, divisible, and generally accepted.
第五，货币必须耐用、便于携带、可分割，并且被普遍接受。