Biological psychology

Scope and prerequisites

Supported GRE topic 1 (I). Read SP.1, NE.1 and HB.1 for the detailed biological mechanisms. Existing official questions are traced in bank_review_form.yaml; original tasks below are not ETS items.

Concepts and method

sensation 感觉: Reception of sensory stimulation. response criterion 反应标准: The threshold for reporting that a signal is present.

Sensation concerns reception of stimulation; perception concerns interpretation. They interact but are not interchangeable.

Signal detection separates sensitivity from the criterion for saying yes. Expectations can change the response criterion.

Neurons communicate through electrical signals and synapses. A brain region’s involvement does not establish that it acts alone.

Lesion and imaging studies give different evidence. Consider confounds and the limits of inferring causes from associations.

A biological explanation needs a path from a physical process to the observed behaviour. Receptors change stimulus energy into neural signals; connected brain systems process those signals. An association in an image cannot tell us whether activity causes, follows or merely accompanies the task. Sleep also depends on both a roughly daily circadian rhythm and pressure that builds during wakefulness. Motivation and emotion involve interacting neural, endocrine and environmental processes. A single brain area or hormone is rarely a complete explanation. Detailed methods are in SP.1, NE.1 and HB.1.

Worked reasoning

A person expecting an alarm reports more faint sounds as alarms. Hits may rise, but false alarms may also rise. This can reflect a more liberal response criterion rather than better sensory sensitivity.

In a fictional alarm task, a bonus for reporting alarms raises hits from 60/100 to 80/100 and false alarms from 10/100 to 30/100. Does this establish improved sensitivity?

Hit rate rises from 60% to 80%, but false-alarm rate also rises from 10% to 30%. A more liberal response criterion can produce both changes. Hit rate alone cannot establish improved sensitivity; compare separation of signal and noise using both rates and a suitable model. Neither the bonus nor these illustrative counts identifies a neural cause.

Independent transfer

A participant sleeps little before a memory scan. Recall falls and one region is less active. Give two competing explanations and a design improvement.

Attempt independently, then use the matching skill sheet solution.

Review and source limits

Avoid this error: A brain image showing activity during a task is not proof that the region alone causes the behaviour. Teaching scope comes from teaching.yaml and the source/key/crop review in bank_review_form.yaml. Detailed current diagnostic criteria require an authenticated manual; neither historical ETS practice nor this educational reference certifies them.

認知、言語、学習

対象範囲と前提条件

サポートされるGREトピック 2 (II)。詳細な認知的メカニズムについては、LR.1, ME.1, LG.1, TH.1 および ME.2 を読め。既存の公式問題は bank_review_form.yaml で追跡されており、以下のオリジナルタスクはETSの問題ではない。

概念と手法

負の強化: 嫌悪条件を除去して行動を増加させること。 morpheme（意味最小単位）: 最も小さい意味を持つ言語単位。

古典的条件付けは刺激間の連合を作ります；操作的条件付けは結果を通じて行動を変化させます。

負の強化は不快な条件を取り除き、行動を増加させます。これは罰ではありません。

作業記憶は現在の処理をサポートします。長期的記憶には明示的・隠蔽的な形式が含まれます。

言語は音の対立に音素を、意味の単位に語根を使用します。問題解決は固定観念や偏ったヒューリスティックによって制限されることがあります。

学習プロセスの名前を付ける前に何が変わるかを特定してください。古典的条件付けでは、シグナルが別の出来事を予測し反応を引き起こします。操作的条件付けでは、行動に続く結果がその将来的な頻度を変化させます。記憶課題は retrieval cues（引き出し手がかり）が異なります：正解を認識することは、自由想起には提供されない情報を供給します。言語課題は音の対立、意味のある語の構成要素、または文法構造を要求する場合があります。言語を分割できない能力として扱うのではなく、レベルを特定してください。詳細な指導については、LR.1, ME.1, LG.1, TH.1 および ME.2 を参照してください。

解答例・推理過程

シートベルト警報はベルトが締められると停止する。警報を除去すると締め付けがより起こりやすくなる：負の強化。追加罰則が不安全な運転を減らす場合、それは正の懲罰である。正・負とは「加える」「除去する」ことを指し、「良い・悪い」ではない。

ある子供が昼食前にメロディを聞き、後にそれに対して唾液分泌しました。別の場合、ある子供が読書後にトークンを獲得し、より頻繁に読書するようになりました。異なるプロセスについて説明してください。

メロディは食べ物を予測しており、シグナルに対する唾液分泌は古典的条件付けに合致します。読書はトークンを生み出し、後続的に増加しました。この結果を追加することは正の強化に合致します。快楽な出来事が自動的に強化となるわけではありません：証拠には対象行動の変化が含まれる必要があります。

独立した転移

学生は定義の最初の文字が見られた時にそれを記憶しますが、助言なしでは回想できません。一人はその記憶が存在しなかったと主張します。評価し、比較案を提案してください。

まず自ら試行し、その後対応するスキルシート解答を使用せよ。

振り返りと出典の限界

この誤りを避けてください：認識性能は、助言なしでの_recall_性能と同一視してはなりません。指導範囲は teaching.yaml および bank_review_form.yaml 内の source/key/crop review から得られます。詳細な現在の診断基準には認証されたマニュアルが必要です；歴史的なETSの慣行やこの教育リファレンスはいずれもそれを認定するものではありません。

社会心理学

対象範囲と前提条件

サポートされるGREトピック 3 (III)。帰因、影響、および集団メカニズムについては SO.1 と SO.2 を読みましょう。公式の過去問は bank_review_form.yaml で追跡されています；以下のオリジナルタスクはETSの問題ではありません。

概念と手法

帰因: 行動に対する説明。 同調: 集団との関連で行動や判断を変えること。

帰因は行動に対する説明に関わります。状況的要因と特性要因は区別すべきです。

同調は集団圧力に関わり、服従は権威者の指令に関わります。どちらも明確な社会的文脈を必要とします。

態度と行動の関連性は測定方法と状況に依存します。表明された意図は観察された行動と同一ではありません。

集団研究は、一般化する前に社会的規範、選出、および倫理的制約を考慮する必要があります。

人々の行動、個人的な信念、そしてその動機を分離してください。同意は受容を求める場合、他者を情報源とする場合、あるいは権威に従う場合があります。帰因は状況的制約と安定した個人的説明を比較する必要があります。集団間の違いを説明するには、サンプリング、規範、および機会に関する情報が必要です；カテゴリーラベルはすべてのメンバーを説明するものではありません。帰因と集団メカニズムについては SO.1 と SO.2 を参照してください。

解答例・推理過程

参加者がグループの明らかな誤った答えに同意する。個人が私的に疑いながら拒絶を避けるために服従する場合、規範的影響が妥当な説明となる。情報を提供SOURCEとしてグループを受け入れることは情報的影響である。

生徒が公に同伴者と同じ意見を示したが、個人的には正解を与えた。成人は指令を出さなかった。どの影響が最も適切か、また何が残りの不確定事項か。

公的・私的な違いは規範的影響に合致します：同意は拒絶を避けようとするためであり、個人的な信念は異なるままです。権威者の指令が記述されていないため、これを服従と呼ぶだけでは十分ではありません。拒絶への恐怖はまだ推論されたメカニズムです；承認された個人的な記録や匿名性の変化により、それを強化できる可能性があります。

独立した転移

あるクラブのメンバーは非メンバーより多く援助する。これがクラブ加入が寛容さを「原因」していることを示さない理由を説明し、その証拠を改善せよ。

まず自ら試行し、その後対応するスキルシート解答を使用せよ。

振り返りと出典の限界

この誤りを避ける：単一の制約された行動から、個人の安定した特性を推論しないこと。指導範囲はteaching.yamlおよびbank_review_form.yamlにおけるsource/key/cropレビューから得られる。詳細な現在の診断基準には認証済みのマニュアルが必要であり、歴史的なETSの実務や本教育参考書はそれらを認定していない。

発達心理学

対象範囲と前提条件

対応GREトピック 4 (IV)。発達の理論とその根拠についてはDV.1を参照されたい。既存の公式問題はbank_review_form.yamlに追跡されており、以下の原创タスクはETSの問題ではない。

概念と手法

コホート：同じ出生時期や歴史的経験を持つ人々の集団。 脱落：研究中に参加者が離脱すること。

発達は生涯にわたり、かつ複数の領域に及ぶものであり、児童期のマイルストーンのみではない。

横断的研究は特定の時点での年齢を比較する；縦断的研究は時間をかけて個人を追跡する。

コホート効果は年齢比較を混同させることがある。縦断的研究では脱落と反復テスト効果が問題となる。

理論は変化に対する異なる説明を提供する。段階のラベルを説明として扱うのではなく、それぞれの具体的なメカニズムを適用せよ。

発達は知識、戦略、社会的支援を異なる速度で変化させることができる。ピアジェの説明は推理の変化に焦点を当て、ヴィゴツキーの説明は社会的相互作用による学習支援に焦点を当てる。付着は一度の分離から推論される恒久的なラベルではなく、関係と安全のパターンに関するものである。平均年齢は各児童の期限を設定するものではない。何が変化したかを判断するには、反復観察、課題要求、文化的文脈を比較せよ。理論と方法についてはDV.1を参照されたい。

解答例・推理過程

20歳と70歳のComputer use（コンピューター使用）を比較する場合、年齢のみを孤立して抽出することはできない。両者は異なる接触機会を持っていたからである。一つのグループを追跡することは変化を調べるのに役立つが、参加者が不均等に脱落する可能性があり、脱落バイアスを生むことがある。

子供は大人のヒントがあれば分類タスクを解決できるが、一人でいる場合は解決できない。この違いを社会文化的説明でどう説明できるか。

ヒントは、支援された性能が独立した性能を上回る範囲内でスキャフォールディングを提供する。注意を向けさせたり、有用な戦略をモデル化したりする可能性がある。実際のヒントを記録し、後にそれを除いてテストを行う。助けがある成功は、まだ独立した習熟を確立したり、普遍的な段階を特定したりするものではない。

独立した転移

ある研究は青少年と成人を一度だけ比較し、その違いを発達の変化と呼ぶ。この設計を述べ、競合する説明と、その限界を含む補完的な設計を提案せよ。

まず自ら試行し、その後対応するスキルシート解答を使用せよ。

振り返りと出典の限界

この誤りを避ける：平均的な発達パターンは、すべての人に同じタイミングや結果をもたらすことを意味しない。指導範囲はteaching.yamlおよびbank_review_form.yamlにおけるsource/key/cropレビューから得られる。詳細な現在の診断基準には認証済みのマニュアルが必要であり、歴史的なETSの実務や本教育参考書はそれらを認定していない。

人格・臨床・異常心理学

対象範囲と前提条件

対応GREトピック 5 (V)。分類と成果の根拠についてはCL.1、CL.2、EP.1を参照されたい。既存の公式問題はbank_review_form.yamlに追跡されており、以下の原创タスクはETSの問題ではない。

概念と手法

トライト（特性）：個体差の比較的安定した次元。 鑑別診断: 臨床所見に対する可能な説明の比較。

特性理論は比較的安定した次元を記述するが、他の人格理論は学習、認知または内部動態に重点を置く。

臨床分類はパターン、機能障害、文脈および鑑別説明を用いる。症状のみでは不十分である。

治療法は提案されるメカニズムが異なる。認知的アプローチは思考を examinedし、行動的アプローチは学習の条件付けを変化させる。

治療研究には適切な対照群と定義された成果が必要である。これらの授業は学術的概念を教えるものであり、自己診断や治療助言ではない。

特性記述は比較的安定したパターンを要約する；行動的要因は習得された条件付けを examineし、認知的要因は解釈を examineし、精神分析的要因は無意識のプロセスに重点を置き、人本主義的要因は経験と成長に重点を置く。メカニズムと証拠を比較し、これらが交換可能な名前として扱われないように注意せよ。臨床カテゴリーは指定された診断枠組みの下でパターンを要約する。その境界線は原因を確立するものではない。CL.1, CL.2 および EP.1 は教育的な分類と成果の解釈を提供する。

解答例・推理過程

ある治療グループが6週間で改善した。比較がない場合、この変化は治療によるもの、自然治癒、期待効果、あるいは平均への回帰のいずれかを反映している可能性がある。無作為割当てと適切な比較群は、因果証拠を強化できる。

生徒の自己報告スコアは数週間にわたって安定しているが、教師がいると変化する。これは評価について何を示唆しているか？

安定したスコアは類似の条件下での再検査信頼性を示すことがある。教師の存在は社会的望ましさや知覚された結果を変える可能性があるため、解釈は環境にも依存する。適切な複数の方法と文脈を使用すること；一貫性だけでは、特性解釈を検証するものでもなく、診断を提供するものでもない。

独立した転移

統制されていない支援プログラムは、極めて高い初期スコアで選ばれた人々の間で大きな改善を報告している。治療効果以外の2つの代替案と、有用な比較を1つ挙げよ。

まず自ら試行し、その後対応するスキルシート解答を使用せよ。

振り返りと出典の限界

この誤りを避ける：複数選択問題による記述から自分自身やクラスメイトを診断しない。実際の評価は資格のある臨床医が行うべきである。教授範囲は teaching.yaml と bank_review_form.yaml のソース/キー/クロップレビューから来る。詳細な現在の診断基準には認証済みのマニュアルが必要です；歴史的なETSの実践やこの教育的参照は、それらを認定するものではない。

測定、手法、統計および歴史

対象範囲と前提条件

サポートGREトピック 6 (VI)。測定、設計および歴史的主張については MM.1, MM.2 および HT.1 を読め。既存の公式問題は bank_review_form.yaml で追跡される；以下のオリジナルタスクはETSの問題ではない。

概念と手法

信頼性: 測定のConsistency（一貫性）。 妥当性: 意図した測定解釈に対するEvidence（証拠）。

信頼性はConsistency（一貫性）に関わり、妥当性は特定の解釈または使用を支持するEvidence（証拠）に関わる。

操作定義は構成要素がどのように測定されるかを指定する。質問票のラベルは構成要素妥当性を確立するものではない。

無作為割り当ては比較を改善し、無作為抽出は集団への一般化を支援する。倫理は両方のデザインと解釈を制限する。

p値は帰無モデル下で少なくとも同等に非互換なデータの確率であり、帰無が真である確率ではない。歴史问题是Explanatory schools（説明学派）とその手法を区別する。

構成要素を定義し、その観測可能な測定を明記し、その後その測定が意図した解釈を支持するかを問うこと。無作為抽出は誰が研究に参加するかに関わり、無作為割り当ては参加者がどの条件を受け取るかに関わる。因果的な結論には、測定と倫理的保護だけでなく、信頼できる比較も必要である。歴史的学派は優先する問題と手法が異なる。MM.1, MM.2 および HT.1 を確認してから、統計的または歴史的ラベルを説明として使用する。

解答例・推理過程

記憶テストで反復施行時に同様の得点が出る場合でも、読み書き能力を主に測定している可能性がある。これはテスト-再テスト信頼性を示すものの、意図された記憶の解釈に関する証拠には欠如している。妥当性の確立には反復的一致だけでは不十分である。

ボランティアは2つの記憶課題に無作為に割り当てられる。これにより、サンプルが全成人を代表するものとなるか？

いいえ。割り当ては採用されたサンプル内の条件間の比較可能性を向上させますが、ボランティアによる選択バイアスを解消するものではありません。一般化には、採用方法、適格性、および人口との違いへの注意が必要です。無作為サンプリングと割り当ては別々に説明してください。

独立した転移

ある報告書では p=.03 とし、その理論が 97% の確率で真であり、かつ大きな効果があると結論づけている。両方の推論を正しく修正せよ。

まず自ら試行し、その後対応するスキルシート解答を使用せよ。

振り返りと出典の限界

この誤りを避ける：統計的有意性だけでは、効果の大きさ、実用的な価値、あるいは設計バイアスの有無を知らせない。教育範囲は teaching.yaml および bank_review_form.yaml におけるソース/キー/クロップレビューから得られる。詳細な現在の診断基準には認証済みのマニュアルが必要です；歴史的なETSの実務や本教育資料もそれらを認定するものではない。

Historical perspectives and psychometric interpretation

Scope and prerequisites

Supported GRE topic 7 (VII). Use MM.1 for standard scores and EP.1 for conditional screening measures. Existing official questions are traced in bank_review_form.yaml; original tasks below are not ETS items.

Concepts and method

reliability 信度: Consistency of measurement under specified conditions. validity 效度: Evidence supporting a particular interpretation and use of scores.

Structuralism analysed conscious experience; functionalism asked how mental activity serves adaptation. Behaviourism emphasised observable learning; Gestalt psychology stressed organised perception. These are historical emphases, not interchangeable labels.

Psychoanalytic accounts emphasise unconscious conflict, humanistic accounts agency and growth, and cognitive accounts information processing. Compare the explanatory mechanism rather than matching every theory to a single familiar name.

Reliability concerns consistency across measurements. Validity concerns evidence for a proposed interpretation and use. A high reliability coefficient cannot prove that a test measures the intended construct fairly.

Standardisation supplies consistent administration and a relevant reference sample. Norm-referenced standing differs from criterion-referenced mastery. Predictive value depends on base rates as well as sensitivity and specificity.

A norm describes relative standing in a reference population; a mastery criterion describes a specified performance standard. A high percentile is not the same as a high percentage correct. Standardized administration reduces avoidable procedural variation, but the norm sample must still fit the intended use. Psychological perspectives can ask complementary questions; differences in emphasis do not make every observation decisive for one school.

Worked reasoning

In 1,000 people, suppose 10 have a target condition. A screening tool detects 9 of those 10, but falsely flags 99 of the other 990. Among 108 positive screens, only 9/108≈8.3% are true positives. This is a hypothetical methods example, not a diagnostic recommendation.

A learner is at the 80th percentile on a normed test and answers 60% correctly. Is this contradictory?

No. Percent correct compares correct responses with all items. Percentile compares the learner's score with scores in a reference group. A difficult test can produce both figures. State the norm population and the particular comparison rather than replacing one measure with the other.

Independent transfer

In 2,000 fictional cases, 20 meet a target definition. A screen flags 18 of these and 198 of the others. Compute the fraction of positive screens that meet the definition.

Attempt independently, then use the matching skill sheet solution.

Review and source limits

Avoid this error: Do not equate sensitivity with the probability that a positive result is correct, and do not use a classroom score to diagnose a disorder. Teaching scope comes from teaching.yaml and the source/key/crop review in bank_review_form.yaml. Detailed current diagnostic criteria require an authenticated manual; neither historical ETS practice nor this educational reference certifies them.

診断システムおよび障害分類

対象範囲と前提条件

対応GREトピック 8 (CL.1)。研究証拠を解釈する際は、概要測定Implemented VI を用いる。既存の公式問題は bank_review_form.yaml に追跡されています；以下のオリジナルタスクはETS出品物ではない。

概念と手法

診断基準: 分類のための症状、持続時間、機能障害、および除外要件のリスト。 素因・ストレスモデル: 脆弱性と環境的要因が共同してリスクに与える影響を説明する理論。

記録された枠組みは DSM-5-TR です。臨床分類はパターンを示しますが、カテゴリー自体が症状の原因を確定するものではありません。歴史的な ETS 項目は、その記録されたソース版に対して解釈する必要があります。

症状、持続時間、臨床的に有意な苦痛や機能障害、文脈、除外基準はすべて併せて考慮されなければなりません。短期間であることだけでは、急性ストレス障害やその他の診断を独自に成立させるものではありません。

素因・ストレスモデルは、脆弱性と環境的要因が共同してリスクに与える影響を検討します。家族歴のみや後の出来事だけでは、必然的な結果や普遍的な必要条件／十分条件の法則を確立することはありません。

一般的な教育的区別には、症状記述における追加体験と機能低下、エピソード性の提示と永続的なパターンの対比が含まれます。完全な現在の基準には、認証されたマニュアルが必要です。利用可能な GRE 練習ブックはそのマニュアルではありません。

記録された教学名は DSM-5-TR です。歴史的な ETS 練習形式は、現在のすべての診断基準に対する権威ではありません。診断には、適用されるマニュアルに基づく完全なパターンと除外基準が必要です。持続時間は証拠の一つであり、決して単独で決定する根拠にはなりません。 predisposition（ predisposition）とstress（stress）はリスク概念です。家族歴や不利益な出来事だけでは、結果が必然になるわけではありません。教室での実践において、実在する人物を分類しないようにしてください。

解答例・推理過程

架空の vignette は最近の不利益な出来事と2つの症状を提供しますが、機能障害、除外基準、および完全な評価は省略されています。どのような結論が正当化されますか？

この vignette は関連する証拠と欠落している情報を特定します。しかし、診断を確立することはできません。持続時間の閾値だけでは、短い記述を別の障害に変換することはできません。適切な教育的反応は、個人への助言を提供するのではなく、欠落している基準領域とソース/バージョンを指摘することです。

独立した転移

架空の2人が家族によるリスク要因を共有していますが、一方だけが後からストレス要因と困難を経験しました。素因・ストレス解釈とその限界について説明してください。

まず自ら試行し、その後対応するスキルシート解答を使用せよ。

振り返りと出典の限界

この誤りを避けてください：持続時間や少数の症状から診断を推測したり、個人的な治療助言を提供したりしないでください。教学の範囲は teaching.yaml および bank_review_form.yaml 内のソース/キー/クロップレビューによって決まります。詳細な現在の診断基準には認証されたマニュアルが必要です。歴史的な ETS 練習やこの教育的参照資料は、それらを認定するものではありません。

Treatment models and outcome evidence

Scope and prerequisites

Supported GRE topic 9 (CL.2). Use the overview measurement lesson VI when interpreting research evidence. Existing official questions are traced in bank_review_form.yaml; original tasks below are not ETS items.

Concepts and method

counterconditioning 对抗性条件作用: Replacing a conditioned response by pairing the stimulus with an incompatible response such as relaxation. common factors 共同因素: Ingredients shared across therapies, such as alliance and expectancy, proposed to explain comparable outcomes.

Each therapy family proposes a mechanism. Psychodynamic work targets unconscious conflict and early relationships, using transference; object-relations variants emphasise early relationships in particular. Behavioural treatment applies learning principles: systematic desensitisation traditionally pairs a graded fear hierarchy with relaxation (counterconditioning), while exposure approaches need not use relaxation pairing. Cognitive-behavioural therapy identifies and tests distorted thoughts and adds behavioural activation. Person-centred work offers empathy, unconditional positive regard and congruence; Gestalt work stresses the here and now. Biological treatment includes medication and, for severe depression, electroconvulsive therapy.

Match technique to mechanism and presentation: specific phobia points to graduated exposure; obsessive-compulsive disorder to exposure with response prevention; depression to cognitive restructuring plus activity scheduling. A therapist rooted in object relations will emphasise early life relationships, not medication or cognitive distortion lists.

Outcome claims need controls because of spontaneous remission and regression to the mean: people seek help at their worst and improve anyway. A randomised controlled trial with a waitlist or placebo comparison separates treatment gain from natural course. Efficacy is performance under controlled conditions; effectiveness is performance in ordinary practice. Meta-analysis pools trials for a more stable estimate.

When bona fide therapies show comparable mean outcomes, the common-factors hypothesis credits shared ingredients such as the working alliance, expectancy and empathy rather than branded techniques. Comparable means do not prove identical mechanisms, and a single trial cannot settle the question either way.

Mechanism and outcome are different claims. An intervention may improve an outcome without the study establishing its proposed mechanism. A waitlist comparison controls some natural change, but not all attention and expectancy differences. An active comparison can address some of those differences. Compare allocation, attrition, outcome definition and follow-up before attributing benefit to a particular technique. Similar sample means do not demonstrate equivalence without an appropriate design and uncertainty analysis.

Worked reasoning

A therapist rooted in object relations theory emphasises early life relationships. A phobia treated by a relaxation-paired hierarchy is counterconditioning. A treated group improving from pre-test to post-test shows change, not efficacy: without a control, regression to the mean and spontaneous remission remain open.

In a fictional randomized study, mean improvement is 8 points in programme A and 5 in an attention comparison. What contrast is relevant?

Between-group difference in mean improvement=8−5=3 points. The 8-point within-group gain includes changes also occurring under the comparison. The contrast may support a relative effect under the study conditions, but precision, missing data and outcome meaning are still needed. It does not establish the mechanism or superiority in all practice settings.

Independent transfer

A review combines ten small trials, all drawn from one type of clinic. Why does having ten studies not ensure a universal conclusion?

Attempt independently, then use the matching skill sheet solution.

Review and source limits

Avoid this error: Inferring causation from a before-and-after gain without a control, or treating comparable means as proof of identical mechanisms. Teaching scope comes from teaching.yaml and the source/key/crop review in bank_review_form.yaml. Detailed current diagnostic criteria require an authenticated manual; neither historical ETS practice nor this educational reference certifies them.

Psychometrics and test construction

Scope and prerequisites

Supported GRE topic 10 (MM.1). Use the overview measurement lesson VI when interpreting research evidence. Existing official questions are traced in bank_review_form.yaml; original tasks below are not ETS items.

Concepts and method

standard error of measurement 测量标准误: The expected spread of observed scores around the true score, SD×sqrt(1−r). construct validity 构想效度: Convergent and discriminant evidence that a score reflects the intended trait.

Reliability is consistency, and its type is named by the design that produced it: the same test twice gives test-retest reliability; two similar forms give alternate-forms reliability; consistency within one sitting (split-half, Cronbach alpha) is internal consistency; agreement between scorers is inter-rater reliability. The Spearman-Brown formula r_full=2r/(1+r) rescales a half-test correlation to full test length: r=.80 becomes about .89.

Validity is evidence for the proposed interpretation, not of the test itself: content validity asks whether items cover the domain; criterion validity relates scores to an outcome, concurrently or predictively; construct validity assembles convergent and discriminant evidence that the score tracks the intended trait. Reliability caps validity but never establishes it: a consistent scale can systematically measure something else.

Standard scores re-express raw scores against a norm group: z=(X−mean)/SD, T=50+10z, and Wechsler deviation IQ=100+15z. A z of +2 gives IQ 130 and about the 98th percentile. The standard error of measurement SEM=SD×sqrt(1−r) converts reliability into a score band: SD=15 with r=.91 gives SEM=15×sqrt(.09)=4.5.

Item analysis checks each item: difficulty p is the proportion answering correctly, and discrimination is the item-total correlation. Items that nearly everyone or no one answers correctly carry little information; negative discrimination flags a likely miskeyed or misleading item.

Choose the reliability coefficient by the source of variation being studied. A standard error of measurement concerns measurement uncertainty under a model; it is not the standard error of a sample mean. The Spearman–Brown estimate assumes sufficiently comparable halves; a formula cannot repair unrelated item content. Standard scores describe relative position and do not show that a test measures the intended construct fairly across groups.

Worked reasoning

Two similar vocabulary tests given a week apart with r=.90 show alternate-forms reliability, not test-retest, because the form changed. With SD=15 and reliability .91, SEM=4.5 points. A z of +2 corresponds to IQ 130. A split-half correlation of .80 corrects to 2×.80/1.80≈.89 at full length.

A fictional scale has mean 50 points, SD 10 points and reliability .84. A score is 65. Compute z and SEM, showing the formulas.

z=(X−mean)/SD; z=(65 points−50 points)/(10 points)=1.5, dimensionless. SEM=SD√(1−r); SEM=(10 points)√(1−.84)=4 points. SEM is a model-based uncertainty measure, not proof of validity. T=50+10z; T=50+10(1.5)=65 on the T scale.

Independent transfer

Two raters repeatedly disagree by five points but rank scripts identically. Does a high correlation establish agreement? Suggest a check.

Attempt independently, then use the matching skill sheet solution.

Review and source limits

Avoid this error: Calling a two-different-forms correlation test-retest reliability, or citing high reliability as if it were validity evidence. Teaching scope comes from teaching.yaml and the source/key/crop review in bank_review_form.yaml. Detailed current diagnostic criteria require an authenticated manual; neither historical ETS practice nor this educational reference certifies them.

Research designs and statistical interpretation

Scope and prerequisites

Supported GRE topic 11 (MM.2). Use the overview measurement lesson VI when interpreting research evidence. Existing official questions are traced in bank_review_form.yaml; original tasks below are not ETS items.

Concepts and method

interaction effect 交互作用: The dependence of one factor's effect on the level of another factor. random assignment 随机分配: Allocating participants to conditions by chance to support causal inference.

A true experiment manipulates an independent variable with random assignment of participants to conditions; between-subjects designs give different people to each condition, within-subjects designs measure the same people in every condition and need counterbalancing. A quasi-experiment lacks full assignment, and a correlational study does not manipulate an independent variable. Correlation alone does not establish causation or temporal order. Random assignment supports internal validity (causal inference); random sampling supports external validity (generalisability). They answer different questions.

Match analysis to design, measurement scale and assumptions. Two independent quantitative groups may suit an independent-samples t-test; paired data require a paired analysis. Factorial designs often use analysis of variance; categorical counts may suit a chi-square test when expected-count assumptions hold. Correlation or regression examines specified associations; neither alone establishes causation.

A main effect averages one factor across the other factor. An interaction means one effect depends on the other factor. Nonparallel sample means suggest an interaction pattern, but variability and the design are needed for population inference. Interactions can exist when averaged main effects cancel; lack of significance is not proof of no effect.

Mean age 26 with most students 25 or younger is compatible with right skew, but does not uniquely determine distribution shape. Statistical significance is not effect size. A p-value is a probability of results at least as extreme under the specified null model and assumptions, not the probability the null is true. Type I and Type II errors depend on design and decision thresholds.

Choose a test from the design, scale and assumptions, not merely the number of groups. Paired observations require a paired or repeated-measures analysis; independent groups require an independent-group analysis. An interaction can be meaningful even if averaged main effects cancel. Statistical significance is evidence under a model, not a condition for describing an observed difference. Report estimates and uncertainty and qualify population claims.

Worked reasoning

Fictional mean scores are: task A, novices 4 and experts 8; task B, novices 8 and experts 4. Compute marginal means and describe the pattern.

Novice marginal mean=(4+8)/2=6; expert marginal mean=(8+4)/2=6. Task A marginal mean=(4+8)/2=6; task B marginal mean=(8+4)/2=6. The task contrast reverses by expertise, an interaction pattern despite equal marginal means. Means alone do not establish a population interaction; variability, design and inference are needed.

Independent transfer

The same 24 people complete two tasks. Another analyst treats the 48 scores as independent. Explain the problem and a suitable analysis family.

Attempt independently, then use the matching skill sheet solution.

Review and source limits

Avoid this error: Drawing a causal conclusion from a correlational design, or reporting a significant interaction as if it were a main effect of one factor. Teaching scope comes from teaching.yaml and the source/key/crop review in bank_review_form.yaml. Detailed current diagnostic criteria require an authenticated manual; neither historical ETS practice nor this educational reference certifies them.

Sensation, perception and psychophysics

Scope and prerequisites

Supported GRE topic 12 (SP.1). Use the overview measurement lesson VI when interpreting research evidence. Existing official questions are traced in bank_review_form.yaml; original tasks below are not ETS items.

Concepts and method

difference threshold 差别阈限: The minimum detectable change in a stimulus, a constant fraction of the baseline by Weber's law. transduction 换能: Conversion of physical stimulus energy into neural signals by receptors.

Psychophysics relates physical intensity to experience. An absolute threshold is a stimulus level meeting a specified detection criterion under specified conditions, often 50% detection; a difference threshold is a detectable change under a stated criterion. Weber's law states that the difference threshold is a constant fraction of the baseline: ΔI/I=k. With k=.02, a 100 g weight needs a 2 g change, while 200 g needs 4 g. Fechner proposed that perceived intensity grows logarithmically with physical intensity.

Real detection is noisy, so signal detection theory separates sensitivity from bias. Presenting signal or noise on each trial gives four outcomes: hits, misses, false alarms and correct rejections. Sensitivity d′ measures how separated the signal and noise distributions are; the criterion measures the observer's willingness to say yes. A payoff change can move the criterion without changing d′, so hit rate alone is not sensitivity.

Sensation begins with transduction: receptors convert physical energy into neural signals, as photoreceptors convert light and hair cells convert sound pressure. Sensory adaptation reduces response to a constant stimulus. Dark adaptation is the recovering sensitivity of the visual system in low light.

Perception organises input rather than copying it. Gestalt principles group by proximity, similarity, closure and good continuation. Bottom-up processing builds percepts from features; top-down processing applies context and expectation. Categorical perception treats continuous acoustic variation as discrete phonemes: within a category, differences are hard to hear even when physically present.

A threshold is defined by a detection criterion under specified conditions, often 50% detection for an absolute threshold, rather than a sharp physical boundary between always seen and never seen. Weber's approximation predicts changes proportional to a baseline within its useful range. Transduction changes energy into neural signalling; perception groups and interprets that input. A change in reporting incentives primarily concerns decision criterion, while changes in physical contrast may affect sensitivity.

Worked reasoning

With Weber fraction .02, detecting a change from 50 g needs 1 g, and from 500 g needs 10 g. A radiologist who says yes more often after a pay-per-hit scheme shifts criterion, not d′. A listener who cannot distinguish two within-category speech sounds shows categorical perception of a physically continuous dimension.

With a fictional Weber fraction k=.03, estimate the just noticeable difference for 100 g and 300 g baselines.

ΔI/I=k, so ΔI=kI. ΔI=.03×100 g=3 g; ΔI=.03×300 g=9 g. The fraction is dimensionless and the result has the baseline's unit. A constant 3 g prediction at both baselines would ignore the proportional model. The approximation does not establish identical thresholds for all observers or intensities.

Independent transfer

A listener says yes on more signal and more noise trials after a warning. Explain why sensory adaptation is not the only or best initial explanation.

Attempt independently, then use the matching skill sheet solution.

Review and source limits

Avoid this error: Treating the difference threshold as a fixed amount rather than a fraction of the baseline, or reading a higher hit rate as better sensitivity when the observer simply says yes more. Teaching scope comes from teaching.yaml and the source/key/crop review in bank_review_form.yaml. Detailed current diagnostic criteria require an authenticated manual; neither historical ETS practice nor this educational reference certifies them.

Neurons, synapses and brain systems

Scope and prerequisites

Supported GRE topic 13 (NE.1). Use the overview measurement lesson VI when interpreting research evidence. Existing official questions are traced in bank_review_form.yaml; original tasks below are not ETS items.

Concepts and method

all-or-none principle 全或无定律: Once threshold is reached a neuron fires a complete spike; stronger stimuli raise rate, not spike size. reuptake 再摄取: Reabsorption of neurotransmitter into the presynaptic cell, ending its action.

The action potential begins at the axon hillock, where graded inputs sum; once the threshold is reached the neuron fires a complete spike (the all-or-none principle), and during the absolute refractory period it cannot fire again. Stimulus intensity is coded by firing rate and by how many neurons fire, not by spike size. Myelin insulates the axon and speeds conduction by saltatory conduction between the nodes of Ranvier; demyelinating disease slows or blocks conduction.

At the synapse, the arriving spike opens calcium channels, vesicles release neurotransmitter into the cleft, and receptors on the postsynaptic cell convert binding into a new graded potential. Reuptake and enzymatic breakdown clear the transmitter. A drug can be an agonist (mimicking or enhancing a transmitter) or an antagonist (blocking receptors); SSRIs block serotonin reuptake, leaving more in the cleft.

Structure-function anchors: the amygdala supports emotion and fear learning; the hippocampus is needed to form new episodic memories; the hypothalamus regulates drives and homeostasis; the cerebellum coordinates movement; Broca's area supports speech production and Wernicke's area comprehension; the prefrontal cortex supports planning and control. Localisation is real but partial: most behaviours involve distributed networks.

Dopamine illustrates specificity: it supports movement and reward, its loss produces Parkinson's disease, and excessive dopaminergic signalling is linked to positive symptoms of schizophrenia, which many antipsychotics treat by blocking D2 receptors. One transmitter serves many systems, so a drug's behavioural effect depends on the pathway, not the molecule alone.

Graded input can vary in size and combine at the trigger region; a propagated action potential is all-or-none. Stronger input can change firing frequency and recruitment, rather than making every spike taller. At a chemical synapse, arrival opens calcium channels, vesicles release transmitter and receptors alter the receiving cell. An agonist increases a receptor-related action; an antagonist blocks it. Effects depend on receptor and circuit, not just the transmitter's name.

Worked reasoning

A spike is triggered at the axon hillock once summed inputs cross threshold; after firing, the absolute refractory period enforces a pause. Blocking serotonin reuptake raises synaptic serotonin, which is the SSRI mechanism. Loss of dopaminergic neurons impairs movement in Parkinson's disease.

A fictional substance blocks receptors without activating them. Another slows transmitter reuptake. Predict their immediate actions with qualifications.

The receptor blocker acts as an antagonist at the stated receptor. Slower reuptake can prolong or increase transmitter availability in the cleft. Neither description establishes an overall behavioural effect: receptor subtype, feedback and affected pathways matter. Do not infer a drug recommendation.

Independent transfer

A stronger stimulus produces more spikes of unchanged height. A pupil calls this evidence against all-or-none firing. Correct the inference.

Attempt independently, then use the matching skill sheet solution.

Review and source limits

Avoid this error: Describing a stronger stimulus as producing a bigger spike, or naming a single brain centre as the whole basis of a complex behaviour. Teaching scope comes from teaching.yaml and the source/key/crop review in bank_review_form.yaml. Detailed current diagnostic criteria require an authenticated manual; neither historical ETS practice nor this educational reference certifies them.

Developmental theories and milestones

Scope and prerequisites

Supported GRE topic 14 (DV.1). Use the overview measurement lesson VI when interpreting research evidence. Existing official questions are traced in bank_review_form.yaml; original tasks below are not ETS items.

Concepts and method

object permanence 客体永久性: Knowing that objects continue to exist when out of sight, gained in the sensorimotor stage. theory of mind 心理理论: Understanding that others hold beliefs, including beliefs that are false.

Piaget's stages are defined by what a child can do. Sensorimotor (birth to about 2): object permanence. Preoperational (about 2 to 7): symbolic play but egocentrism and failure of conservation. Concrete operational (about 7 to 11): conservation and reversible operations on concrete material. Formal operational (about 11 up): hypothetico-deductive reasoning, as in the pendulum task, where the solver holds one factor constant while varying another. Ages are approximate; the reasoning profile defines the stage.

Kohlberg ordered moral reasoning into preconventional (consequences to self), conventional (approval and rules) and postconventional (principles) levels. Erikson framed eight lifespan psychosocial crises, from trust versus mistrust in infancy to integrity versus despair in late adulthood; identity versus role confusion belongs to adolescence. Stage theories describe common sequences, not fixed timetables.

Attachment research uses the strange situation: secure infants use the caregiver as a base and are comforted at reunion; avoidant infants keep distance; resistant (ambivalent) infants cling yet are not easily comforted. Caregiver sensitivity predicts the pattern, and early patterns relate to later relationships without determining them.

Theory of mind is understanding that others hold beliefs, including false ones. The false-belief task is its standard test: a child who expects a searcher to look where the object really is, rather than where the searcher saw it, has not yet passed. Intentional lying presupposes modelling what another person believes, so deceptive lying marks a change in mental representation.

Assimilation uses an existing scheme; accommodation changes the scheme when it does not fit. Conservation tasks examine whether a transformation changes a quantity, not merely whether children use an adult word. In a supported-learning account, distinguish a prompt that organizes a child's reasoning from a prompt that supplies the answer. Attachment observations concern relationship-specific behaviour under a protocol, not an adult personality diagnosis.

Worked reasoning

A child who solves the pendulum problem by holding X constant while varying Y shows formal-operational reasoning. Conserving liquid volume across containers marks concrete operations. An infant who is easily comforted at reunion shows a secure pattern. Expecting a searcher to look where the object really is fails the false-belief task.

A child calls every four-legged animal a dog, then creates a separate category for cats after contrasting examples. Explain the two processes.

Using the existing dog category for a cat illustrates assimilation. Revising categories to distinguish cats illustrates accommodation. The example concerns changing classification, not proof of a particular stage or the child's general intelligence. Ask for the child's reasoning and test new examples.

Independent transfer

A child predicts that a taller narrow cup has more water after a transfer. Design a question that tests reasoning rather than giving away the answer.

Attempt independently, then use the matching skill sheet solution.

Review and source limits

Avoid this error: Assigning a stage by age alone, or treating a developmental sequence as a fixed timetable; the reasoning profile, not the birthday, defines the stage. Teaching scope comes from teaching.yaml and the source/key/crop review in bank_review_form.yaml. Detailed current diagnostic criteria require an authenticated manual; neither historical ETS practice nor this educational reference certifies them.

Theorists, schools and their claims

Scope and prerequisites

Supported GRE topic 15 (HT.1). Use the overview measurement lesson VI when interpreting research evidence. Existing official questions are traced in bank_review_form.yaml; original tasks below are not ETS items.

Concepts and method

structuralism 结构主义: Titchener's school analysing experience into basic elements by introspection. cognitive revolution 认知革命: The 1950s restoration of mental processes as lawful objects of study, displacing strict behaviourism.

Psychology's laboratories began in the 1870s: Wilhelm Wundt at Leipzig (1879) and William James's Harvard laboratory work. Wundt's student Titchener carried structuralism, analysing experience into elements by introspection; James's functionalism instead asked what mental processes are for, shaped by evolution. Gestalt psychologists (Wertheimer, Köhler, Koffka) rejected element analysis, arguing that organised wholes precede parts in perception.

Freud's psychoanalysis centred on unconscious conflict and early experience, with defence mechanisms and stages of psychosexual development; its claims are debated as science but shaped clinical practice. Watson's 1913 behaviourism rejected introspection for observable behaviour, and Skinner's radical behaviourism explained action by operant consequences. Horney analysed coping as moving toward, away from or against people.

The humanistic third force (Maslow's hierarchy of needs, Rogers's person-centred approach) stressed growth and self-actualisation against both psychoanalysis and behaviourism. The cognitive revolution of the 1950s restored mind as a lawful object: Miller's working-memory limits, Neisser's cognitive synthesis, and Chomsky's 1959 review arguing that Skinner's verbal-behaviour account cannot explain language acquisition.

Later traditions built on these: Bandura's social learning (the Bobo doll studies) added observation and modelling to conditioning; Beck's cognitive therapy treats distorted thinking in depression; Eysenck described personality on broad dimensions such as extraversion and neuroticism. Match each name to a claim and method, not merely to a famous phrase.

Classify an explanation by its proposed mechanism and method. Structuralist analysis of experience differs from functional questions about adaptation. Behaviourist accounts study relations among environment and observable action; cognitive accounts use representations and processing. Gestalt accounts emphasize organization rather than reducing every percept to isolated sensations. A historical label is useful only when it identifies a claim that could guide evidence collection.

Worked reasoning

Wundt's Leipzig laboratory and James's Harvard work mark the 1870s founding; Titchener turned introspection into structuralism while James asked functional questions. Chomsky's review of Verbal Behavior is a landmark of the cognitive turn against Skinner. A therapist targeting distorted automatic thoughts works in Beck's cognitive tradition.

One account studies reinforcement schedules; another models a temporary information store; a third studies the purpose a behaviour serves. Match each emphasis.

Reinforcement schedules fit a behavioural emphasis. A temporary information store fits a cognitive information-processing emphasis. Adaptive purpose fits functionalism's characteristic question. These are explanatory emphases, not a claim that a modern researcher must belong exclusively to one school.

Independent transfer

An answer names a famous theorist but gives no account of the observation. Rewrite it as an explanation that could be checked, using the reinforcement case.

Attempt independently, then use the matching skill sheet solution.

Review and source limits

Avoid this error: Crediting one founder with founding alone, or treating psychoanalytic claims and tested cognitive findings as the same kind of evidence. Teaching scope comes from teaching.yaml and the source/key/crop review in bank_review_form.yaml. Detailed current diagnostic criteria require an authenticated manual; neither historical ETS practice nor this educational reference certifies them.

Conditioning, reinforcement and observational learning

Scope and prerequisites

Supported GRE topic 16 (LR.1). Use the overview measurement lesson VI when interpreting research evidence. Existing official questions are traced in bank_review_form.yaml; original tasks below are not ETS items.

Concepts and method

negative reinforcement 负强化: Strengthening a behaviour by removing an aversive stimulus; not punishment. extinction 消退: Weakening of a conditioned response when the CS no longer predicts the US or the behaviour is no longer reinforced.

Classical conditioning pairs a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus until the neutral stimulus (now conditioned) evokes a conditioned response: bell then food gives bell-evoked salivation. Key phenomena: acquisition, extinction when the CS appears without the US, spontaneous recovery after a pause, generalisation to similar stimuli and discrimination between them. The CS predicts the US; timing and contingency matter.

Operant conditioning changes voluntary behaviour by its consequences. Reinforcement INCREASES behaviour: positive adds something wanted, negative removes something aversive. Punishment DECREASES behaviour: positive adds something aversive, negative removes something wanted. Negative reinforcement is not punishment: both escape and avoidance strengthen the behaviour that ends or prevents the aversive event.

Reinforcement schedules shape response patterns. Fixed-ratio schedules give high rates with a post-reinforcement pause; variable-ratio schedules give the highest, steadiest rates and resist extinction (gambling). Fixed-interval schedules give scalloped responding that rises near the interval end; variable-interval schedules give steady moderate rates. Ratio schedules count responses; interval schedules count time.

Observational learning needs attention to the model, retention of what was seen, the ability to reproduce it, and motivation; vicarious reinforcement (seeing the model rewarded) raises imitation. Bandura's Bobo doll studies showed children imitate filmed aggression. Modelling extends learning beyond direct experience.

Positive means adding; negative means removing. Reinforcement increases the target behaviour; punishment decreases it. Classify from the observed contingency and subsequent behaviour, not the adult's intention. Ratio schedules depend on responses; interval schedules depend on elapsed time before a response can be reinforced. Extinction means the previously reinforced response or cue no longer receives its former consequence; it is not simply forgetting.

Worked reasoning

A tone repeatedly followed by food comes to evoke salivation; presenting the tone without food extinguishes it, yet the response can briefly return after a rest (spontaneous recovery). A slot machine is a variable-ratio schedule: rapid, steady, extinction-resistant play. Taking an aspirin to end a headache is negative reinforcement; a fine for late work is negative punishment.

Access to a game is removed after interruptions, and interruptions decline. An alarm stops after homework begins, and starting increases. Classify both.

Removing access and decreasing interruptions is negative punishment. Removing the alarm and increasing starting is negative reinforcement. The same word removing occurs in both; the direction of change in the named behaviour separates them. These are descriptions of fictional contingencies, not recommended classroom interventions.

Independent transfer

Rewards follow every fifth response in one task and the first response after varying time intervals in another. Identify the schedules and the condition that earns each reward.

Attempt independently, then use the matching skill sheet solution.

Review and source limits

Avoid this error: Calling negative reinforcement punishment, or treating any unpredictable reward as variable-ratio; interval schedules pay the first response AFTER the interval. Teaching scope comes from teaching.yaml and the source/key/crop review in bank_review_form.yaml. Detailed current diagnostic criteria require an authenticated manual; neither historical ETS practice nor this educational reference certifies them.

メモリシステム、プロセスおよび忘却

対象範囲と前提条件

対応するGREトピック 17 (ME.1)。研究証拠を解釈する際は、概要測定レッスンVIを使用してください。既存の公式問題はbank_review_form.yamlで追跡されており、以下のオリジナルタスクはETS出品物ではありません。

概念と手法

作業記憶: 数個のチャンクを数秒間保持・操作する限定的なアクティブシステム。 前向き干渉: 古い学習が新しい情報の保持を妨げる現象。

モデル型は保存期間に基づいて記憶の階層を整理します。感覚記憶は短暂かつほぼ完全な痕跡を保持し（視覚にはアイコニック、聴覚にはエコーイック）、200–300 msのマスクによってこれを破壊します。短期記憶または作業記憶は数秒間で数個のチャンクを保持し、ミラーの古典的な推定値は 7±2 チャンクであり、反復により情報がアクティブに保たれます。長期記憶は持続性が高く、実質的に無制限です。

作業記憶は単なる短期保存装置以上です。バドリーモデルでは、言語的な材料に対する音韻ループと、画像に対する視空間スケッチパッドを持つ中央執行機能があります。チャンク化はアイテムを既知の単位に再符号化することで、保存容量自体を増やすことなく有効な容量を広げます。

長期記憶は内容と意識の有無によって分類されます。エピソード記憶は個人的な出来事、意味論的記憶は事実や知識、手技的記憶はスキルです。暗黙記憶は意図的な想起なしに行動に現れ（プライミング、スキル）、明瞭記憶は意図的な想起や認識です。ある人は意識的に回想できない情報でもプライミングを示すことができます。

忘却には識別可能なメカニズムがあります。前向き干渉は古い学習が新しいものを妨害すること、後向き干渉は新しい学習が古いものを妨害することを指します。検索失敗はエンコーディング特異性に従い、エンコーディング文脈に一致する手がかりが想起を回復させます。系列位置効果（初頭効果と終末効果）は長期記憶と即座の保存からの寄与を分離します。

感覚保存は短時間にモーダリティ固有の入力を保持します。作業記憶は限られた量を維持・処理し、チャンク化は有効な単位を変化させます。長期明瞭記憶にはエピソード的事柄と意味論的知識が含まれ、暗黙的影响にはスキルとプライミングがあります。忘却は干渉や検索失敗を含むため、自由想起テストでの失敗が単に減衰によるものとは断定できません。一般的な「7±2」のスパンは特定のタスク下での歴史的推定値であり、普遍的な作業記憶の容量ではありません。

解答例・推理過程

マスキングされた文字配列は 300 ms以内に消失する——感觉记忆（感觉记忆）。電話番号を 3-4 個のチャンクで覚えるのは、作業記憶におけるチャンク化である。会話を思い出さずに顔认出的是暗黙的记忆。フランス語を学んだ後にスペイン語を学んだ場合、フランス語の語彙がスペイン語の想起に干渉する：先行妨害。

古いアカウントパスワードは新しいパスワードの recall を困難にします。後で新しいパスワードは古いものの recall を妨害します。それぞれの方角を名付けてください。

古いものが新しいものを妨害するのは前向き干渉、新しいものが古いものを妨害するのは後向き干渉です。ラベルを適用する前に、対象となる要素と妨害している要素を特定してください。この事例は、いずれかの記憶が消滅したことを示していません。

独立した転移

ある人が運動タスクでは改善するが、トレーニングセッション自体は回想できない場合、どの区別が当てはまり、なぜ一方のケースが完全に隔離されたシステムの証明にならないのか。

まず自ら試行し、その後対応するスキルシート解答を使用せよ。

振り返りと出典の限界

この誤りを避けてください：作業記憶を一つの箱として扱う、あるいはすべての記憶の失敗を減衰とする；干渉と手がかり依存性の検索失敗が大半の試験ケースを説明しています。教授範囲はteaching.yamlおよびbank_review_form.yaml内のソース/キー/クロップレビューから導かれます。詳細な現在の診断基準には認証済みのマニュアルが必要です。過去のETSの慣行やこの教育的参照資料がそれらを認定するものではありません。

Language structure, perception and acquisition

Scope and prerequisites

Supported GRE topic 18 (LG.1). Use the overview measurement lesson VI when interpreting research evidence. Existing official questions are traced in bank_review_form.yaml; original tasks below are not ETS items.

Concepts and method

morpheme 语素: The smallest meaning-bearing unit of language. syntax 句法: The rules governing how words combine into phrases and sentences.

Language is hierarchical. Phonemes are the smallest sound units that distinguish meaning (/b/ versus /p/); morphemes are the smallest meaning-bearing units (un-happy-ness has three); syntax governs how words combine into phrases and sentences; semantics concerns meaning. A sentence can be grammatical yet meaningless — syntax and semantics are separable.

Speech perception is categorical: continuous acoustic variation is heard as discrete phonemes, so a sound between /b/ and /p/ is reported as one or the other. Listeners segment a continuous stream using transitional probabilities and knowledge, not audible gaps between words.

Reading links print to sound and meaning. Skilled readers use both a grapheme-to-sound route (sounding out) and a direct whole-word route for familiar words; dyslexia research separates phonological decoding deficits from surface patterns. Eye-movement studies show reading is a series of fixations and saccades, not smooth gliding.

Bilingualism research separates language proficiency from general intelligence: balanced bilinguals show executive-control practice effects, while subtractive schooling can harm both languages. Second-language learning declines with age of onset, especially for pronunciation and grammar, without a single sharp critical cut-off.

Phonemes distinguish sound categories; morphemes carry meaning. Syntax concerns organization of words; semantics concerns meaning; pragmatics concerns use in context. A grammatical sentence can be unusual in meaning. Children's rule-based errors can show productive generalization rather than exact copying. Both learning opportunities and biological constraints matter; a single error cannot decide every language-acquisition theory.

Worked reasoning

Un-happy-ness is three morphemes but the spoken form has more phonemes than syllables. A sound midway between /b/ and /p/ is heard as clearly one or the other — categorical perception. Colourless green ideas sleep furiously is grammatical but meaningless, separating syntax from semantics.

A child says walked correctly and then says goed. What does the second form suggest about learning, and what would be an overclaim?

Goed applies a productive past-tense pattern to an irregular verb, consistent with overregularization. The child is doing more than repeating every form exactly. This does not prove that input or reinforcement never matters or that one complete theory has been established. Examine patterns across forms and development.

Independent transfer

Explain how a message can have correct syntax but be misunderstood because of context, using an original example.

Attempt independently, then use the matching skill sheet solution.

Review and source limits

Avoid this error: Counting morphemes by letters or syllables, or treating word boundaries in speech as physically present; segmentation is inferred by the listener. Teaching scope comes from teaching.yaml and the source/key/crop review in bank_review_form.yaml. Detailed current diagnostic criteria require an authenticated manual; neither historical ETS practice nor this educational reference certifies them.

Thinking, problem solving and intelligence

Scope and prerequisites

Supported GRE topic 19 (TH.1). Use the overview measurement lesson VI when interpreting research evidence. Existing official questions are traced in bank_review_form.yaml; original tasks below are not ETS items.

Concepts and method

availability heuristic 可得性启发式: Estimating frequency or likelihood by how easily examples come to mind. representativeness heuristic 代表性启发式: Judging probability by similarity to a prototype, neglecting base rates.

Concepts group instances; natural concepts have fuzzy boundaries organised around prototypes, so a robin is a "better" bird than a penguin and is verified faster. Schemas are organised knowledge structures about domains; scripts are schemas for event sequences (the restaurant script). Schemas guide encoding and also distort recall toward the expected.

An algorithm guarantees a solution by exhaustive rule; heuristics trade certainty for speed. Availability estimates frequency by ease of recall, so vivid events are overestimated. Representativeness judges by similarity to a prototype and neglects base rates. Anchoring drags estimates toward an initial number. Framing changes choices between logically equivalent descriptions, and confirmation bias seeks only supporting evidence.

Problem solving fails in characteristic ways: functional fixedness (objects only in usual roles), mental set (old solutions to new problems), and missing insight restructuring. Means-end analysis reduces the difference to the goal; working backward suits problems with a clear goal state.

Intelligence theories differ on structure: Spearman's general factor g, Cattell's fluid versus crystallised abilities, Gardner's multiple intelligences, Sternberg's triarchic analysis. Test interpretation follows the psychometrics of earlier units: scores are reliable for prediction within their validation samples, but a score measures performance on the test, not a fixed essence.

An algorithm follows steps that guarantee a solution for its specified problem class when correctly applied. A heuristic is an efficient shortcut that may fail. Representativeness judges similarity and can neglect base rates; availability uses ease of recall and can confuse memorable with frequent. Mental set and functional fixedness constrain which solutions are considered. Intelligence tests measure performances under particular conditions and require validity and fairness evidence for their use.

Worked reasoning

Estimating plane crashes as commoner than car deaths after news coverage is the availability heuristic. Judging a quiet bookish stranger more likely a librarian than a farmer, despite far more farmers, is representativeness neglecting base rates. Using a candle only as a candle, not as part of a shelf, is functional fixedness.

A description fits a rare occupation. A pupil chooses it without checking how many people have each occupation. Identify the reasoning risk.

Representativeness can override base-rate information: similarity to a stereotype does not by itself determine probability. Combine relevant likelihood information with prior frequencies if available. A vivid description supplies neither a population count nor proof of group traits.

Independent transfer

A method works on nine puzzles and fails on a tenth with different constraints. Explain how to decide whether the method is an algorithm or heuristic and propose a response.

Attempt independently, then use the matching skill sheet solution.

Review and source limits

Avoid this error: Calling a heuristic an error in itself; heuristics are efficient defaults whose costs are predictable. Do not equate a test score with a fixed measure of worth or potential. Teaching scope comes from teaching.yaml and the source/key/crop review in bank_review_form.yaml. Detailed current diagnostic criteria require an authenticated manual; neither historical ETS practice nor this educational reference certifies them.

Social cognition, attribution and social influence

Scope and prerequisites

Supported GRE topic 20 (SO.1). Use the overview measurement lesson VI when interpreting research evidence. Existing official questions are traced in bank_review_form.yaml; original tasks below are not ETS items.

Concepts and method

fundamental attribution error 基本归因错误: Over-attributing others' behaviour to disposition while neglecting the situation. normative influence 规范性影响: Conforming to gain acceptance or avoid rejection, distinct from informational influence.

Attribution assigns causes to behaviour: internal (dispositional) or external (situational). The fundamental attribution error over-uses dispositional explanations for others, and the actor-observer asymmetry reverses this for ourselves. Correspondent inference asks when an act reveals a trait: freely chosen, unexpected or low-consensus acts are the most informative.

Influence comes in two kinds: normative influence is conforming to be accepted; informational influence is accepting others' behaviour as evidence about reality. Asch's line studies showed conformity to a unanimous majority on unambiguous judgements; Milgram's obedience studies showed destructive compliance with an authority. Conformity falls sharply with one dissenting partner.

Cognitive dissonance is the tension from holding inconsistent cognitions, reduced by changing attitudes or justifications; with insufficient external justification, people internalise the behaviour. Persuasion follows the elaboration likelihood model: the central route (arguments) produces durable change when audiences can and will think; the peripheral route (cues, attractiveness) is fragile.

Self-evaluation processes include self-affirmation (restoring worth in an unaffected domain after a threat), self-verification (seeking confirming feedback), self-monitoring (adjusting self-presentation) and the self-serving bias (success internal, failure external). Excitation transfer lets residual arousal from one event intensify a later emotional reaction.

Attribution distinguishes situational and dispositional explanations. Informational influence treats others as evidence; normative influence concerns acceptance. Obedience involves an authority's direction. An attitude includes evaluative components, while an action also depends on opportunity, incentives and constraints. A mechanism needs discriminating evidence: public agreement alone cannot uniquely identify private belief.

Worked reasoning

Screaming at a friend after a parking ticket is excitation transfer: residual arousal intensifies the later anger. Reminding yourself of a strength after a comparison threat is self-affirmation. Agreeing with a unanimous group on an obvious line length is normative conformity. A vague appeal working only when the audience is distracted is peripheral-route persuasion.

A student copies a group's route choice because they believe the group knows the campus. How does this differ from copying to avoid ridicule?

Believing the group has useful knowledge fits informational influence. Avoiding ridicule fits normative influence. The same outward action can arise through different mechanisms. Anonymity, uncertainty and private accounts may help distinguish them in an ethically approved task.

Independent transfer

A late student is called lazy, but the bus stopped unexpectedly. Build a better attribution and name what remains unknown.

Attempt independently, then use the matching skill sheet solution.

Review and source limits

Avoid this error: Do not merge conformity and obedience (peer pressure versus authority), or call every dispositional inference an error; the error is neglecting the situation, not using traits at all. Teaching scope comes from teaching.yaml and the source/key/crop review in bank_review_form.yaml. Detailed current diagnostic criteria require an authenticated manual; neither historical ETS practice nor this educational reference certifies them.

Groups, relationships and intergroup processes

Scope and prerequisites

Supported GRE topic 21 (SO.2). Use the overview measurement lesson VI when interpreting research evidence. Existing official questions are traced in bank_review_form.yaml; original tasks below are not ETS items.

Concepts and method

social loafing 社会惰化: Reduced individual effort when contributions are pooled and unidentifiable. bystander effect 旁观者效应: Help becomes less likely as the number of witnesses grows, via diffusion of responsibility.

Groups change performance. Social facilitation: the presence of others strengthens dominant responses, helping well-learned tasks and hurting novel ones. Social loafing: effort falls when individual contributions are unidentifiable. Groupthink: cohesive groups under pressure suppress dissent and reach poor decisions; deindividuation: anonymity in a crowd lowers self-restraint.

Attraction is predicted first by propinquity — physical or functional proximity, as in making friends on the same dorm floor — then similarity and reciprocal liking; mere exposure breeds familiarity-based liking. Social exchange theory reads relationships as outcomes minus costs against a comparison level; interdependence analyses use each partner's payoff structure.

Separate the intergroup trio: stereotypes are beliefs about groups, prejudice is evaluative affect, discrimination is behaviour. The minimal-group paradigm shows in-group favouritism from arbitrary assignment alone; realistic conflict theory ties hostility to competition over resources; the contact hypothesis reduces prejudice under equal status, common goals and cooperative contact, not mere exposure.

The bystander effect: help falls as witnesses increase, through diffusion of responsibility and pluralistic ignorance (each reads others' calm as no emergency). Aggression research links frustration to aggression and shows how residual arousal (excitation transfer) can escalate conflict; altruism is helped by clear identification of a single victim.

Diffusion of responsibility can reduce an individual's felt obligation when others could act. Pluralistic ignorance can make people interpret others' inaction as evidence that help is unnecessary. Cohesion can support cooperation but does not always improve judgement. Group polarization concerns a shift toward an initially favoured direction; groupthink concerns decision processes that suppress critical evaluation. Intergroup explanations must examine structures, norms and contact conditions, not assume every member shares one attitude.

Worked reasoning

Friends cluster on the same dorm floor — propinquity. A tug-of-war team slacks when pulls are pooled — social loafing under unidentifiable contributions. Arbitrary badge colours producing in-group preference is the minimal-group effect. Nobody calling for help in a crowded plaza is diffusion of responsibility.

Several witnesses wait because each thinks another will call for help. Name the mechanism and distinguish it from believing no help is needed.

Expecting someone else to act fits diffusion of responsibility. Interpreting everyone else's calm as evidence there is no emergency fits pluralistic ignorance. The case needs their accounts or an appropriate manipulation to distinguish mechanisms; mere group size does not establish either.

Independent transfer

A group makes a more extreme decision after discussion. Give evidence needed to identify polarization and one alternative process.

Attempt independently, then use the matching skill sheet solution.

Review and source limits

Avoid this error: Writing stereotype, prejudice and discrimination as synonyms, or promising that any contact fixes prejudice; contact works under conditions, not by default. Teaching scope comes from teaching.yaml and the source/key/crop review in bank_review_form.yaml. Detailed current diagnostic criteria require an authenticated manual; neither historical ETS practice nor this educational reference certifies them.

Attention limits and non-associative learning

Scope and prerequisites

Supported GRE topic 22 (AT.1). Use the overview measurement lesson VI when interpreting research evidence. Existing official questions are traced in bank_review_form.yaml; original tasks below are not ETS items.

Concepts and method

habituation 习惯化: Non-associative decline in response to a repeated stimulus, reversed by stimulus change. divided attention 分配性注意: Sharing limited central capacity across concurrent tasks, with costs set by load.

Attention is limited capacity. Early-selection accounts filter by physical features, late-selection accounts filter after meaning, and multimode theory (Johnston and Heinz) lets the selection point flex with task demands. Divided attention fails when combined demands exceed capacity: a hands-free call still slows driving because the bottleneck is central, not manual.

Load theory separates perceptual load from working-memory load: high perceptual load in the main task shuts out distractors, while high working-memory load invites them. Predictions follow the load, not the slogan that multitasking is always impossible.

Habituation is non-associative learning: repeated presentation of a stimulus weakens the response, and a changed stimulus restores it (dishabituation). No pairing with another stimulus is involved, which separates it from classical conditioning. A commuter who stops hearing a scheduled train has habituated; the response returns if the train schedule changes.

Habituation is exploited as a measure: infants look longer at novel stimuli, so looking-time recovery after habituation indexes discrimination. Extinction in conditioning is different: there a learned association is withdrawn, not a repeated stimulus.

Attention models specify where and under what demands selection occurs. Perceptual load and working-memory control demands can make different predictions; a blanket claim that distraction always rises with load is inadequate. Habituation is a declining response after repeated exposure; renewed response to a change supports discrimination. Distinguish it from receptor adaptation, fatigue and conditioning extinction through the stimulus history and a suitable comparison.

Worked reasoning

A driver on a hands-free call brakes later because central capacity is shared, not because of occupied hands. City residents stop noticing constant traffic noise (habituation), but notice immediately when it stops or changes (dishabituation). An infant who looks longer at a changed display demonstrates discrimination through looking-time recovery.

Looking time falls across repeated displays and rises after the colour changes. What is supported, and what is not established?

The recovery is consistent with discrimination of the change after habituation. It does not show adult-like colour concepts or prove exactly how the display is represented. Control simple salience differences and compare suitable novel and familiar displays.

Independent transfer

A response falls with repeated sound presentations. Propose a check against fatigue and explain why extinction is not established.

Attempt independently, then use the matching skill sheet solution.

Review and source limits

Avoid this error: Calling habituation a form of conditioning, or claiming attention always fails under any dual task; the cost depends on load and the selection point. Teaching scope comes from teaching.yaml and the source/key/crop review in bank_review_form.yaml. Detailed current diagnostic criteria require an authenticated manual; neither historical ETS practice nor this educational reference certifies them.

Evolutionary and comparative perspectives

Scope and prerequisites

Supported GRE topic 23 (EX.1). Use the overview measurement lesson VI when interpreting research evidence. Existing official questions are traced in bank_review_form.yaml; original tasks below are not ETS items.

Concepts and method

inclusive fitness 广义适合度: Reproductive success counting both direct offspring and the reproduction of relatives weighted by relatedness. fixed action pattern 固定行为模式: An invariant species-typical sequence released by a specific sign stimulus.

Kin selection explains helping by inclusive fitness: a gene spreads by aiding relatives who share it. Hamilton's rule says helping pays when rB>C — benefit to the recipient weighted by relatedness exceeds cost to the helper. With benefits and costs held equal, closer relatedness makes the inequality more likely to hold: compare siblings (r=.5) with first cousins (r=.125). The rule predicts direction and rough ordering, not exact human behaviour.

Ethology studies species-typical behaviour. A fixed action pattern is an invariant sequence released by a specific sign stimulus and run to completion, as in classic egg-retrieval or mating displays. Because it is triggered rather than assembled, a fixed action pattern can be hijacked by supernormal stimuli — models with exaggerated features.

Evolutionary explanations ask about function: how a behaviour raised reproductive success in ancestral environments. They compete or combine with learning accounts; prepared learning (fast acquisition of evolutionarily relevant fears like snakes) shows both at once. An evolutionary story is a hypothesis about history, and needs comparative or experimental evidence, not plausibility alone.

Comparative caution cuts both ways: do not read human motives into animal behaviour (anthropomorphism), and do not assume a human behaviour is learned when cross-species patterns suggest otherwise. The examinable skill is matching each explanation to its evidence type.

Hamilton's inequality is a model of selection under stated costs, benefits and relatedness, not an instruction about human duty. Inclusive fitness concerns effects on genetic representation through self and relatives. Fixed action patterns describe characteristic sequences in classic ethological models; real behaviour can vary with state and context. Evolutionary function and immediate learning mechanisms can complement each other. A plausible adaptive story requires evidence that distinguishes it from alternatives.

Worked reasoning

Helping a sibling before a cousin fits rB>C ordering. A goose retrieving a doorknob as if it were an egg shows a fixed action pattern released by an exaggerated sign stimulus. Acquiring a fear of snakes after one bad experience, but not of flowers, illustrates prepared learning.

In a fictional fitness model, B=8, C=3 and r=.5. Test the inequality. Repeat for r=.125.

rB>C. For r=.5, rB=.5×8=4>3, so the stated condition holds. For r=.125, rB=.125×8=1<3, so it does not. Benefits and costs must use compatible fitness measures. Relatedness alone cannot rank helping when B or C differs across cases.

Independent transfer

An animal quickly learns one fear association. Explain why this can be compatible with both learning and an evolutionary account, and what evidence is needed.

Attempt independently, then use the matching skill sheet solution.

Review and source limits

Avoid this error: Treating Hamilton's rule as a precise human calculator, or explaining any observed behaviour as adaptive after the fact; an evolutionary claim needs evidence, not a plausible story. Teaching scope comes from teaching.yaml and the source/key/crop review in bank_review_form.yaml. Detailed current diagnostic criteria require an authenticated manual; neither historical ETS practice nor this educational reference certifies them.

Encoding depth and retrieval routes

Scope and prerequisites

Supported GRE topic 24 (ME.2). Use the overview measurement lesson VI when interpreting research evidence. Existing official questions are traced in bank_review_form.yaml; original tasks below are not ETS items.

Concepts and method

levels of processing 加工水平: The account in which memory strength follows the depth of encoding analysis. transfer-appropriate processing 迁移适宜性加工: Encoding helps most when its form matches the retrieval test.

Levels of processing (Craik and Lockhart) hold that memory strength follows the depth of encoding, not the intention to learn. Shallow tasks (is the word in capitals?) give weak traces; phonemic tasks (does it rhyme?) are intermediate; semantic tasks (does it fit the sentence?) are deepest. Incidental learners doing deep tasks can out-remember intentional learners doing shallow ones.

Maintenance rehearsal repeats material without change and holds it briefly; elaborative rehearsal links it to meaning, images and prior knowledge, producing durable traces. The generation effect — better memory for answers you produce than words you read — is elaboration at work.

Transfer-appropriate processing adds the retrieval side: encoding helps most when it matches the test. Semantic encoding suits semantic tests; phonemic encoding can beat it on rhyme-recognition tests. Depth usually wins because most tests probe meaning, but the match, not depth alone, decides.

Encoding specificity applies the same match principle to context: recall improves when the retrieval environment or state matches encoding. These effects sit beside the interference mechanisms from the earlier memory unit: depth builds the trace, match retrieves it.

Semantic elaboration often supports later meaning-based recall because it creates useful relationships and retrieval routes. Maintenance repetition can keep information active without the same elaboration. Transfer-appropriate processing asks whether encoding operations fit the later test. Therefore depth is not an unconditional ranking of all possible tasks. Context match can provide cues; it is one influence among many, not a guarantee of recall.

Worked reasoning

Answering "does it fit the sentence" beats "is it in capitals" on later recall, even with no warning of a test. Generating the missing word in a list beats reading it. Rhyme-encoding can beat meaning-encoding on a rhyme test — transfer-appropriate processing. Divers remembering word lists better underwater (where they learned them) show encoding specificity.

One group judges meaning and another judges rhyme. On a rhyme-recognition test, the rhyme group performs better. Does this disprove every benefit of semantic encoding?

No. The result is consistent with an encoding–test match. It qualifies a claim that deeper meaning processing always wins. Compare both groups on meaning-based and rhyme-based tests to examine the interaction between encoding and retrieval demand. Keep exposure and time comparable.

Independent transfer

Design a two-by-two classroom study that distinguishes an encoding advantage from a matching advantage, then predict the informative pattern.

Attempt independently, then use the matching skill sheet solution.

Review and source limits

Avoid this error: Equating repetition with learning: maintenance rehearsal holds material briefly but builds weak traces, and intention to learn without a deep task adds little. Teaching scope comes from teaching.yaml and the source/key/crop review in bank_review_form.yaml. Detailed current diagnostic criteria require an authenticated manual; neither historical ETS practice nor this educational reference certifies them.

ホルモン、ストレス、行動調節

対象範囲と前提条件

サポートされるGREトピック 25 (HB.1)。研究証拠を解釈する際は、概要測定Implemented lesson VIを使用すること。既存の公式問題は bank_review_form.yaml に追跡されており、以下のオリジナルタスクはETS項目ではない。

概念と手法

HPA軸：下視床-下垂体-副腎鎖であり、遅いコルチゾールストレス反応を産生する。 ネガティブフィードバック：産物が自身の上位の放出を阻害し、反応を制限すること。

ストレス反応は2つのクロックで運転されている。速い交感神経-副腎髄質経路は数秒内でアドレナリンを放出する；遅いHPA軸は数分かけて下視床（CRH）→下垂体（ACTH）→副腎皮質（コルチゾール）を走破し、エネルギーを動員して不要不急の機能を抑制する。慢性ストレスは複数の相互作用する経路を通じて健康に影響を与えることができ、コルチゾールはこの調節の一部であり、唯一必然的な原因ではない。

主要な調節ホルモン：プロゲステロンは着床のために子宮内膜を準備・維持する；オキシトシンは陣痛収縮および乳汁排出を駆動し、絆付けと関連する；メラトニンは睡眠覚醒サイクルをタイミングする；インスリンとグルカゴンは対抗的に血糖を管理する。ホルモンを vague な気分ラベルではなく、それが奉仕するループに合わせてマッチさせること。

ホルモンは神経信号とはタイミングと標的不同：神経シグナリングは often 速く空間的に指向され、ホルモンシグナリングは often 循環を通じて長い時間かけて作用する。これらは例外のある傾向であり、絶対的な区切りではない。対応する受容体を有する細胞のみが応答するため、循環中のホルモンでも選択的仍是あり得る。

フィードバックはシステムを制限する：コルチゾールはCRHおよびACTHの放出を阻害（ネガティブフィードバック）するため、刺激消失時に軸は減速する。フィードバックの失敗または慢性活性化——ホルモン自体ではない——が適応的な反応を負債に変える要因となる。

HPAシーケンスは下視床のCRH、下垂体のACTH、副腎皮質のコルチゾールを結ぶ。コルチゾールは上位の放出を阻害するフィードバックに関与する。交感神経-副腎反応はより迅速に作用できる。神経と内分泌のシグナリングは機能で重なり、タイミングは有用な傾向であり、絶対的な速/遅の区切りではない。循環するホルモンは標的細胞が受容体によって異なるため選択的に作用する。慢性ストレスは複数の経路を含むものであり、唯一必然的なコルチゾール効果に還元できない。

解答例・推理過程

交通での危険回避：数秒でアドレナリン、その後HPA軸を介して数分でコルチゾールが放出されます。その後のコルチゾールはCRH/ACTHを抑制し、反応を鎮静化させます。プロゲステロンは受胎した卵子の着床に備えます。メラトニンは夜間に上昇し、睡眠のタイミングを調整します。

HPA経路における位置に基づきCRH、ACTH、コルチゾールを順序立て、コルチゾール自体を有害だと呼ばずにネガティブフィードバックを説明せよ。

視床下部はCRHを放出し、これが下垂体ACTHを刺激して副腎皮質コルチゾールを産生させる。コルチゾールは上流のシグナルを抑制することで応答を調節する。この適応制御は「ホルモンが常に有害である」ということと異なる。反復的な活性化、文脈、および調節が重要である。

独立した転移

あるホルモンは多くの臓器に到達するが、特定の細胞のみに影響を与える。広範な循環と選択的効果の両立を説明せよ。

まず自ら試行し、その後対応するスキルシート解答を使用せよ。

振り返りと出典の限界

この誤りを避ける：ホルモンに単一の感情を割り当てるか、受容体の選択性を無視すること。ホルモンは広く伝達されるが、反応するのは受容体を持つ細胞のみである。指導範囲はteaching.yamlおよびbank_review_form.yaml内のソース/キー/クロップレビューから得られる。詳細な現在の診断基準には認証済みのマニュアルが必要であり、歴史的なETSの実務や本教育リファレンスでそれらを認定するものではない。

Epidemiology and clinical evidence

Scope and prerequisites

Supported GRE topic 26 (EP.1). Use the overview measurement lesson VI when interpreting research evidence. Existing official questions are traced in bank_review_form.yaml; original tasks below are not ETS items.

Concepts and method

incidence 发病率(新发病例): The number or rate of NEW cases arising in a period. prevalence 患病率: The proportion of a population with the condition at a given time.

Incidence counts NEW cases in a period (number of new diagnoses in a year); prevalence counts ALL existing cases at a time. Chronic conditions can have low incidence and high prevalence; short acute outbreaks show the reverse. A count of new cases in the United States in the past year is an incidence figure.

Rates need denominators: incidence rate is new cases divided by person-time at risk; prevalence is existing cases divided by the population. Comparing raw counts across populations of different sizes misleads; compare rates.

Case reports, case-control studies, cohorts, randomized trials and meta-analyses answer different questions. Random allocation can reduce baseline confounding under appropriate implementation; observational designs need explicit confounder analysis. Quality, bias, relevance and uncertainty must be evaluated within each design. A meta-analysis cannot automatically repair weak constituent studies.

Screening and risk run on base rates: with low prevalence, even an accurate test yields mostly false positives among positives. Number needed to treat and relative versus absolute risk are read against the baseline, not from the treatment label alone.

A cumulative incidence proportion uses new cases among people initially at risk over a specified period. An incidence rate uses person-time, while point prevalence counts existing cases at a specified time. Do not interchange their denominators or units. Design labels are guides, not an automatic quality ladder: a biased trial or weak meta-analysis can mislead. Relative risk reduction needs its baseline; absolute change and follow-up duration are necessary for interpretation.

Worked reasoning

Counting this year's new schizophrenia diagnoses measures incidence; counting everyone currently diagnosed measures prevalence. A 50% relative risk reduction from 2% to 1% is 1 point absolute. A rare-condition screen with many false positives follows directly from the low base rate.

In a fictional closed cohort, 12 of 600 initially unaffected people develop a condition over one year, with complete follow-up. Compute cumulative incidence. If 30 of 750 people have it at a census, compute prevalence.

Cumulative incidence=new cases/initially at-risk population=12/600=.02, or 2% over one year. Point prevalence=existing cases/population at that time=30/750=.04, or 4%. The first is not a person-time incidence rate; the second includes old and new existing cases at the census.

Independent transfer

A fictional trial's risks over the same period are 4% in control and 3% in treatment. Compute relative and absolute reduction and NNT, then qualify.

Attempt independently, then use the matching skill sheet solution.

Review and source limits

Avoid this error: Reporting a new-case count as prevalence, or quoting relative risk without the absolute baseline. Teaching scope comes from teaching.yaml and the source/key/crop review in bank_review_form.yaml. Detailed current diagnostic criteria require an authenticated manual; neither historical ETS practice nor this educational reference certifies them.