Mental and Physical Health · ⁨בריאות נפש וגוף⁩

Learning Objective 5.1.A: Explain how health psychology addresses issues of physical health and wellness as they apply to behavior and mental processes.

Learning Objective 5.1.B: Explain how stress applies to behavior and mental processes.

• 5.1.B.1 Stress is a factor in heightened susceptibility to disorders and disease. Stress has been linked to physiological issues such as hypertension, headaches, and immune suppression.
• 5.1.B.2 Stressors can be viewed as motivating (eustress) or debilitating (distress). Stressors can be experienced as traumatic or as daily hassles that can build up over time. Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) are sources of stress that can affect a person throughout the lifespan.

Learning Objective 5.1.C: Explain how reactions to stress apply to behavior and mental processes.

• 5.1.C.1 The general adaptation syndrome (GAS) describes the process of experiencing stress. Initially, alarm reaction occurs when the stress is encountered (via a fight-flight-freeze response). Then, a resistance phase occurs as the stress is confronted. Finally, an exhaustion phase occurs when the stress subsides, or resources are spent. The greatest susceptibility to illness occurs during the exhaustion phase.
• 5.1.C.2 The tend-and-befriend theory proposes that some people react to stress by tending to their own needs and/or the needs of others and seeking connection with others. This phenomenon seems to occur mostly in women.

Learning Objective 5.1.D: Explain how the ways that people cope with stress applies to behavior and mental processes.

• 5.1.D.1 Problem-focused coping involves seeing stress as a problem to be solved and working solutions until a solution is found.
• 5.1.D.2 Emotion-focused coping involves managing emotional reactions to stress as a means of coping. Strategies that are emotion-focused may include deep breathing, meditation, or taking medication aimed at reducing stressful emotional responses.

Learning Objective 5.2.A: Explain how positive psychology approaches the study of behavior and mental processes.

• 5.2.A.1 Positive psychology seeks to identify factors that lead to well-being, resilience, positive emotions, and psychological health.

Learning Objective 5.2.B: Explain how positive subjective experiences apply to behavior and mental processes.

• 5.2.B.1 Expressing gratitude, a positive subjective experience, increases subjective well-being.
• 5.2.B.2 People who exercise their signature strengths or virtues report higher levels of positive objective experiences such as happiness and subjective well-being. A classification of character strengths has been developed around 6 categories of virtues: wisdom, courage, humanity, justice, temperance, and transcendence.
• 5.2.B.3 Posttraumatic growth, a positive subjective experience, may result after the experience of trauma or stress.

Learning Objective 5.3.A: Describe the approaches used to define behaviors and mental processes as psychological disorders.

• 5.3.A.1 Level of dysfunction, perception of distress, and deviation from the social norm are all factors used to identify psychological disorders.
• 5.3.A.2 Diagnosing or classifying psychological disorders has positive and negative consequences depending on the nature of the disorder, the individual being diagnosed, and the presence of cultural/societal norms, stigma, racism, sexism, ageism, and discrimination.
• 5.3.A.3 Diagnosing psychological disorders requires specialized training and the use of evidence-based diagnostic tools. The American Psychiatric Association developed the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM) of Mental Disorders to classify mental disorders. The World Health Organization developed the International Classification of Mental Disorders (ICD) to classify mental disorders. These classification systems are updated regularly to be responsive to new research and practice advances.

Learning Objective 5.3.B: Explain how psychological perspectives define psychological disorders.

• 5.3.B.1 Most psychologists employ an eclectic approach (using more than one psychological perspective) when diagnosing and treating clients.
• 5.3.B.2 The behavioral perspective proposes that the causes of mental disorders focus on maladaptive learned associations between or among responses to stimuli.
• 5.3.B.3 The psychodynamic perspective proposes that the causes of mental disorders focus on unconscious thoughts and experiences, often developed during childhood.
• 5.3.B.4 The humanistic perspective proposes that the causes of mental disorders focus on a lack of social support and being unable to fulfill one’s potential.
• 5.3.B.5 The cognitive perspective proposes that the causes of mental disorders focus on maladaptive thoughts, beliefs, attitudes, or emotions.
• 5.3.B.6 The evolutionary perspective proposes that the causes of mental disorders focus on behaviors and mental processes that reduce the likelihood of survival.
• 5.3.B.7 The sociocultural perspective proposes that the causes of mental disorders focus on maladaptive social and cultural relationships and dynamics.
• 5.3.B.8 The biological perspective proposes that the causes of mental disorders focus on physiological or genetic issues.

Learning Objective 5.3.C: Explain how interaction models define psychological disorders.

• 5.3.C.1 The biopsychosocial model assumes that any psychological problem potentially involves a combination of biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors.
• 5.3.C.2 The diathesis-stress model assumes that psychological disorders develop due to a genetic vulnerability (diathesis) in combination with stressful life experiences (stress).

Learning Objective 5.4.A: Describe the symptoms and possible causes of selected neurodevelopmental disorders.

• 5.4.A.1 Neurodevelopmental disorders are a group of disorders with onset occurring during the developmental period. Symptoms of neurodevelopmental disorders focus on whether the person is exhibiting behaviors appropriate for their age or maturity range. Selected disorders in scope for AP Psychology in this category are attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and autism spectrum disorder (ASD).
• 5.4.A.2 Possible causes of neurodevelopmental disorders may be environmental, physiological, or genetic in nature.

Learning Objective 5.4.B: Describe the symptoms and possible causes of selected schizophrenic spectrum disorders.

• 5.4.B.1 Schizophrenic spectrum disorders are characterized by issues in one or more of these five areas: delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thinking or speech, disorganized motor behavior, and negative symptoms. Schizophrenia can be experienced as an acute or chronic condition.
  • 5.4.B.1.i Delusions (false beliefs) are positive symptoms and may manifest in ways such as delusions of persecution or grandeur.
  • 5.4.B.1.ii Hallucinations (false perceptions) are positive symptoms and may involve one or more of the senses.
  • 5.4.B.1.iii Disorganized thinking or speech is a positive symptom and may manifest as speaking in ways such as speaking in a word salad (stringing together words in nonsensical ways).
  • 5.4.B.1.iv Disorganized motor behavior may manifest as catatonia. Catatonia, or disordered movement, may be experienced as excitement (a positive symptom manifestation) or stupor (a negative symptom manifestation).
  • 5.4.B.1.v Negative symptoms present as the lack of a typical behavior, such as the lack of emotional expression (flat affect) or lack of movement (catatonic stupor).
• 5.4.B.2 Possible causes of schizophrenia suggest a genetic or biological link, such as prenatal virus exposure or imbalances with certain neurotransmitters (dopamine hypothesis).

Learning Objective 5.4.C: Describe the symptoms and possible causes of selected depressive disorders.

• 5.4.C.1 Depressive disorders are characterized by the presence of sad, empty, or irritable mood along with physical and cognitive changes that affect a person’s ability to function. Selected disorders in scope for AP Psychology in this category are major depressive disorder and persistent depressive disorder.
• 5.4.C.2 Possible causes of depressive disorders focus on biological, genetic, social, cultural, behavioral, or cognitive sources.

Learning Objective 5.4.D: Describe the symptoms and possible causes of selected bipolar disorders.

• 5.4.D.1 Bipolar disorders are characterized by periods of mania and periods of depression. Bipolar cycling involves experiencing periods of depression and mania in alternating periods that can last various amounts of time. Selected disorders in scope for AP Psychology in this category are Bipolar I disorder and Bipolar II disorder.
• 5.4.D.2 Possible causes of bipolar disorders focus on biological, genetic, social, cultural, behavioral, or cognitive sources.

Learning Objective 5.4.E: Describe the symptoms and possible causes of selected anxiety disorders.

• 5.4.E.1 Anxiety disorders are characterized by excessive fear and/or anxiety with related disturbances to behavior. Selected disorders in scope for AP Psychology in this category are specific phobia, agoraphobia, panic disorder, social anxiety disorder, and generalized anxiety disorder.
  • 5.4.E.1.i Specific phobia involves fear or anxiety toward a specific object or situation, such as acrophobia (heights) or arachnophobia (spiders).
  • 5.4.E.1.ii Agoraphobia is intense fear of specific social situations, including using public transportation, being in open spaces, being in enclosed spaces (e.g., shops, theaters, etc.), standing in line or being in a crowd, or being outside of the home alone.
  • 5.4.E.1.iii Panic disorder involves the experience of panic attacks (unanticipated and overwhelming biological, cognitive, and emotional experiences of fear/anxiety). Panic disorder can manifest as a culture-bound anxiety disorder such as ataque de nervios (experienced mainly by people of e Caribbean or Iberian descent).
  • 5.4.E.1.iv Social anxiety disorder involves the intense fear of being judged or watched by others. Social anxiety disorder is distinct from but may include agoraphobia. Taijin kyofusho is a culture-bound anxiety disorder experienced mainly by Japanese people in which people fear others are judging their bodies as undesirable, offensive, or unpleasing.
  • 5.4.E.1.v Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) involves prolonged experiences of nonspecific anxiety or fear.
• 5.4.E.2 Possible causes of anxiety disorders focus on learned associations between and among stimuli, maladaptive thinking or emotional responses, and biological or genetic sources.

Learning Objective 5.4.F: Describe the symptoms and possible causes of selected obsessive-compulsive disorders and related disorders.

• 5.4.F.1 Obsessive-compulsive and related disorders are characterized by the presence of obsessions (intrusive thoughts) and compulsions (intrusive, often repetitive, behaviors intended to address obsessions). Selected disorders in scope for AP Psychology in this category are obsessive-compulsive disorder and hoarding disorder.
• 5.4.F.2 Possible causes of obsessive-compulsive disorders involve learned associations between and among stimuli, maladaptive thinking or emotional responses, and biological or genetic sources.

Learning Objective 5.4.G: Describe the symptoms and possible causes of selected dissociative disorders.

• 5.4.G.1 Dissociative disorders are characterized by dissociations from consciousness, memory, identity, emotion, perception, body representation, motor control, and behavior. Selected disorders in scope for AP Psychology in this category are dissociative amnesia (with and without fugue) and dissociative identity disorder.
• 5.4.G.2 Possible causes of dissociative disorders involve the experience of trauma or stress.

Learning Objective 5.4.H: Describe the symptoms and possible causes of selected trauma and stressor-related disorders.

• 5.4.H.1 Trauma and stressor-related disorders are characterized by exposure to a traumatic or stressful event with subsequent psychological distress. Symptoms of trauma and stressor-related disorders may involve hypervigilance, severe anxiety, flashbacks to traumatic or stressful experiences, insomnia, emotional detachment, and hostility. The selected disorder in scope for AP Psychology in this category is posttraumatic stress disorder.
• 5.4.H.2 Possible causes of trauma and stressor-related disorders involve the experience of trauma or stress.

Learning Objective 5.4.I: Describe the symptoms and possible causes of selected feeding and eating disorders.

• 5.4.I.1 Feeding and eating disorders are characterized by altered consumption or absorption of food that impairs health or psychological functioning. Selected disorders in scope for AP Psychology in this category are anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa.
• 5.4.I.2 Possible causes of feeding and eating disorders focus on biological, genetic, social, cultural, behavioral, or cognitive sources.

Learning Objective 5.4.J: Describe the symptoms and possible causes of selected personality disorders.

• 5.4.J.1 Personality disorders (which fall into three clusters) are characterized by enduring patterns of internal experience and behavior that is deviant from one’s culture; is pervasive and inflexible; begins in adolescence or early adulthood; is stable over time; and leads to personal distress or impairment.
  • 5.4.J.1.i Cluster A is the odd or eccentric cluster and includes paranoid, schizoid, and schizotypal personality disorders.
  • 5.4.J.1.ii Cluster B is the dramatic, emotional, or erratic cluster and includes antisocial, histrionic, narcissistic, and borderline personality disorders.
  • 5.4.J.1.iii Cluster C is the anxious or fearful cluster and includes avoidant, dependent, and obsessive-compulsive personality disorders.
• 5.4.J.2 Possible causes of personality disorders focus on biological, genetic, social, cultural, behavioral, or cognitive sources.

Learning Objective 5.5.A: Describe research and trends in the treatment of psychological disorders.

• 5.5.A.1 Many researchers who have conducted meta-analytic studies of psychotherapy conclude that psychotherapies are generally effective. Many psychologists use evidence-based interventions to develop treatment plans. Therapists should exhibit cultural humility and establish a therapeutic alliance with the client to deliver therapy successfully.

Learning Objective 5.5.B: Describe research and trends in the treatment of psychological disorders.

• 5.5.B.1 Due to the increased use and effectiveness of psychotropic medication therapy, hospitals and asylums deinstitutionalized massive numbers of people in the late 20th century. Therapists now prefer to treat in decentralized ways, often with a combination of medication and psychological therapies.

Learning Objective 5.5.C: Describe ethical principles in the treatment of psychological disorders.

• 5.5.C.1 Psychologists in clinical or therapeutic situations must follow certain ethical principles as established by the APA, including nonmaleficence, fidelity, integrity, and respect for people’s rights and dignity.

Learning Objective 5.5.D: Describe techniques used with psychological therapies.

• 5.5.D.1 Psychodynamic therapies employ free association and dream interpretation to uncover the unconscious mind.
• 5.5.D.2 Cognitive therapies may employ cognitive restructuring or fear hierarchies to combat maladaptive thinking. Cognitive therapy proposes that people should focus on the cognitive triad—negative thoughts about oneself, the world, and the future.
• 5.5.D.3 Applied behavior analysis involves applying principles of conditioning to address mental disorders and developmental disabilities. Exposure therapies (such as systematic desensitization), aversion therapies, and token economies all employ principles of applied behavior analysis. Biofeedback uses principles of conditioning to help clients regulate body systems (such as the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems) that contribute to feelings of anxiety or depression.
• 5.5.D.4 Cognitive-behavioral therapies, such as dialectical behavior therapy and rational-emotive behavior therapy, combine techniques from the cognitive and behavioral perspectives to treat mental and behavioral disorders.
• 5.5.D.5 Therapy from the humanistic perspective, commonly referred to as person-centered therapy, employs active listening and unconditional positive regard.

Learning Objective 5.5.E: Explain how group therapy is different from individual therapy.

Learning Objective 5.5.F: Describe effective uses of hypnosis.

• 5.5.F.1 Hypnosis has shown effectiveness in treating pain and anxiety. Research does not support the use of hypnosis to retrieve accurate memories or regress in age.

Learning Objective 5.5.G: Describe interventions derived from the biological perspective.

• 5.5.G.1 Psychoactive medications, such as antidepressants, antianxiety drugs, lithium, or antipsychotic medications, interact with specific neurotransmitters in the central nervous system to address possible biochemical causes of mental disorders. Psychoactive medications can have side effects such as tardive dyskinesia (a movement disorder related to the regulation of dopamine in the nervous system).
• 5.5.G.2 Surgical or invasive interventions include psychosurgery (which may involve lesioning), TMS (transcranial magnetic stimulation), or electroconvulsive therapy. The lobotomy is a form of psychosurgery that was popular in the mid-20th century but is rarely, if ever, performed today.