Cognition

2.1

Perception

Syllabus

Learning Objective	Essential Knowledge
2.1.A Explain how internal and external factors influence perception.	2.1.A.1 Perception is influenced by whether one primarily relies on external sensory information (bottom-up processing) or internal prior expectations (top-down processing). 2.1.A.2 Schemas and perceptual sets are internal factors that filter perceptions of the world. 2.1.A.3 Contexts, experiences, and cultural experiences and expectations are external factors that filter perceptions of the world. 2.1.A.4 Perceptual principles proposed by Gestalt psychology (closure, figure and ground, proximity, and similarity) help explain how humans organize their perceptual world. 2.1.A.5 Attention is an interaction of sensation and perception that is affected by internal and external processes. 2.1.A.5.i Some experiences of attention can be selective, such as with the cocktail party effect, where people attend to mentions of their names or specific topics in loud or distracting environments. 2.1.A.5.ii Inattention can lead to a type of “blindness” to aspects of the environment. Change blindness occurs when changes to the environment are not perceived due to inattention.
2.1.B Explain how visual perceptual processes produce correct or incorrect interpretations of stimuli.	2.1.B.1 Binocular depth cues of retinal disparity (the difference between the images projecting onto the retina) and convergence (the merging of the retinal images by the brain) utilize images from each eye to provide perception of depth. 2.1.B.2 Monocular depth cues (relative clarity, relative size, texture gradient, linear perspective, and interposition) give the illusion of depth on flat or two-dimensional surfaces. Exclusion Statement: The AP Psychology Exam will only address the listed monocular depth cues in EK 2.1.B.2. 2.1.B.3 Visual perceptual constancies maintain the perception of an object even when the images of the object in the visual field change. 2.1.B.4 Apparent movement can be visually perceived even when objects are not actually moving.

Learning Objective

Essential Knowledge

2.1.A
Explain how internal and external factors influence perception.

2.1.A.1 Perception is influenced by whether one primarily relies on external sensory information (bottom-up processing) or internal prior expectations (top-down processing).
2.1.A.2 Schemas and perceptual sets are internal factors that filter perceptions of the world.
2.1.A.3 Contexts, experiences, and cultural experiences and expectations are external factors that filter perceptions of the world.
2.1.A.4 Perceptual principles proposed by Gestalt psychology (closure, figure and ground, proximity, and similarity) help explain how humans organize their perceptual world.
2.1.A.5 Attention is an interaction of sensation and perception that is affected by internal and external processes.
- 2.1.A.5.i Some experiences of attention can be selective, such as with the cocktail party effect, where people attend to mentions of their names or specific topics in loud or distracting environments.
- 2.1.A.5.ii Inattention can lead to a type of “blindness” to aspects of the environment. Change blindness occurs when changes to the environment are not perceived due to inattention.

2.1.B
Explain how visual perceptual processes produce correct or incorrect interpretations of stimuli.

2.1.B.1 Binocular depth cues of retinal disparity (the difference between the images projecting onto the retina) and convergence (the merging of the retinal images by the brain) utilize images from each eye to provide perception of depth.
2.1.B.2 Monocular depth cues (relative clarity, relative size, texture gradient, linear perspective, and interposition) give the illusion of depth on flat or two-dimensional surfaces.
- Exclusion Statement: The AP Psychology Exam will only address the listed monocular depth cues in EK 2.1.B.2.
2.1.B.3 Visual perceptual constancies maintain the perception of an object even when the images of the object in the visual field change.
2.1.B.4 Apparent movement can be visually perceived even when objects are not actually moving.

Source: College Board AP Course and Exam Description

Unit 1 ended with sensation, the detection of a stimulus. Perception 知觉 is what the brain does next: it organises and interprets that information. The same signal can be perceived in more than one way.

Two directions of processing work together:

Bottom-up processing 自下而上加工 starts from the raw sensory information and builds upwards.
Top-down processing 自上而下加工 starts from what you already expect and know.

Internal filters shape perception. A schema 图式 is a mental framework built from past experience. A perceptual set 知觉定势 is a readiness to see something in a particular way. External filters matter too: context 情境 and cultural expectations change what people report seeing.

Gestalt psychology 格式塔心理学 described how the brain groups parts into wholes: closure 闭合 (filling in gaps), figure and ground 图形与背景 (separating an object from its background), proximity 邻近性 (grouping things that are close), and similarity 相似性 (grouping things that look alike).

Attention 注意 sits between sensation and perception. It is limited, so some information is lost:

Selective attention 选择性注意 focuses on one input. The cocktail party effect 鸡尾酒会效应 is hearing your own name across a noisy room.
Inattentional blindness 无意视盲 is failing to see something visible because attention was elsewhere; change blindness 变化盲视 is failing to notice that something has changed.

Vocabulary Train

English
Perception/pəˈsepʃn/
Bottom-up processing/ˈbɒtəm ʌp ˈprəʊsesɪŋ/
Top-down processing/tɒp daʊn ˈprəʊsesɪŋ/
schema/ˈskiːmə/
perceptual set/pəˈseptʃuːəl set/
context/ˈkɒntekst/
Gestalt psychology/ɡəʃˈtɑːlt saɪˈkɒlədʒi/
closure/ˈkləʊʒə/
figure and ground/ˈfɪɡə ænd ɡraʊnd/
proximity/prɒkˈsɪmɪti/
similarity/ˌsɪmɪˈlærɪti/
Attention/əˈtenʃn/
Selective attention/sɪˈlektɪv əˈtenʃn/
cocktail party effect/ˈkɒkteɪl ˈpɑːti ɪˈfekt/
Inattentional blindness/ɪnəˈtenʃənl ˈblaɪndnəs/
change blindness/tʃeɪndʒ ˈblaɪndnəs/

2.1

Depth, Constancy, and Movement

Syllabus

Learning Objective	Essential Knowledge
2.1.A Explain how internal and external factors influence perception.	2.1.A.1 Perception is influenced by whether one primarily relies on external sensory information (bottom-up processing) or internal prior expectations (top-down processing). 2.1.A.2 Schemas and perceptual sets are internal factors that filter perceptions of the world. 2.1.A.3 Contexts, experiences, and cultural experiences and expectations are external factors that filter perceptions of the world. 2.1.A.4 Perceptual principles proposed by Gestalt psychology (closure, figure and ground, proximity, and similarity) help explain how humans organize their perceptual world. 2.1.A.5 Attention is an interaction of sensation and perception that is affected by internal and external processes. 2.1.A.5.i Some experiences of attention can be selective, such as with the cocktail party effect, where people attend to mentions of their names or specific topics in loud or distracting environments. 2.1.A.5.ii Inattention can lead to a type of “blindness” to aspects of the environment. Change blindness occurs when changes to the environment are not perceived due to inattention.
2.1.B Explain how visual perceptual processes produce correct or incorrect interpretations of stimuli.	2.1.B.1 Binocular depth cues of retinal disparity (the difference between the images projecting onto the retina) and convergence (the merging of the retinal images by the brain) utilize images from each eye to provide perception of depth. 2.1.B.2 Monocular depth cues (relative clarity, relative size, texture gradient, linear perspective, and interposition) give the illusion of depth on flat or two-dimensional surfaces. Exclusion Statement: The AP Psychology Exam will only address the listed monocular depth cues in EK 2.1.B.2. 2.1.B.3 Visual perceptual constancies maintain the perception of an object even when the images of the object in the visual field change. 2.1.B.4 Apparent movement can be visually perceived even when objects are not actually moving.

Learning Objective

Essential Knowledge

2.1.A
Explain how internal and external factors influence perception.

2.1.A.1 Perception is influenced by whether one primarily relies on external sensory information (bottom-up processing) or internal prior expectations (top-down processing).
2.1.A.2 Schemas and perceptual sets are internal factors that filter perceptions of the world.
2.1.A.3 Contexts, experiences, and cultural experiences and expectations are external factors that filter perceptions of the world.
2.1.A.4 Perceptual principles proposed by Gestalt psychology (closure, figure and ground, proximity, and similarity) help explain how humans organize their perceptual world.
2.1.A.5 Attention is an interaction of sensation and perception that is affected by internal and external processes.
- 2.1.A.5.i Some experiences of attention can be selective, such as with the cocktail party effect, where people attend to mentions of their names or specific topics in loud or distracting environments.
- 2.1.A.5.ii Inattention can lead to a type of “blindness” to aspects of the environment. Change blindness occurs when changes to the environment are not perceived due to inattention.

2.1.B
Explain how visual perceptual processes produce correct or incorrect interpretations of stimuli.

2.1.B.1 Binocular depth cues of retinal disparity (the difference between the images projecting onto the retina) and convergence (the merging of the retinal images by the brain) utilize images from each eye to provide perception of depth.
2.1.B.2 Monocular depth cues (relative clarity, relative size, texture gradient, linear perspective, and interposition) give the illusion of depth on flat or two-dimensional surfaces.
- Exclusion Statement: The AP Psychology Exam will only address the listed monocular depth cues in EK 2.1.B.2.
2.1.B.3 Visual perceptual constancies maintain the perception of an object even when the images of the object in the visual field change.
2.1.B.4 Apparent movement can be visually perceived even when objects are not actually moving.

Source: College Board AP Course and Exam Description

To perceive a three-dimensional world from a flat retinal image, the brain uses depth cues 深度线索.

Binocular cues 双眼线索 need both eyes. Retinal disparity 视网膜像差 is the small difference between the two images; the greater the difference, the closer the object. Convergence 辐辏 is the inward turn of the eyes for near objects.

Monocular cues 单眼线索 work with one eye: relative clarity 相对清晰度, relative size 相对大小, texture gradient 纹理梯度, linear perspective 线条透视, and interposition 遮挡 (a nearer object blocks a further one).

Perceptual constancy 知觉恒常性 keeps an object looking the same even when its retinal image changes - a door stays rectangular as it swings open. The brain can also perceive apparent movement 似动 when nothing actually moves, which is why a series of still frames looks like a film.

Cover one eye: whatever still works is monocular

Vocabulary Train

English
depth cues/depθ kjuːz/
Binocular cues/bɪˈnɒkjʊlə kjuːz/
Retinal disparity/ˈretɪnl dɪˈspærɪti/
Convergence/kənˈvɜːdʒəns/
Monocular cues/mɒˈnəʊkjʊlə kjuːz/
relative clarity/ˈrelətɪv ˈklærɪti/
relative size/ˈrelətɪv saɪz/
texture gradient/ˈtekstʃə ˈɡreɪdɪənt/
linear perspective/ˈlɪnɪə pəˈspektɪv/
interposition/ˌɪntəpəˈzɪʃn/
Perceptual constancy/pəˈseptʃuːəl ˈkɒnstənsi/
apparent movement/əˈpærənt ˈmuːvmənt/

2.2

Thinking and Problem-Solving

Syllabus

Learning Objective	Essential Knowledge
2.2.A Explain how psychological concepts and theories account for thinking, problem-solving, judgment, and decision-making.	2.2.A.1 Concepts form the basis of thought. Prototypes are the ideal example for any given concept. 2.2.A.2 People form and modify schemas, or frameworks for thinking, through assimilation (taking in new information but not changing the schema in light of it) and accommodation (taking in new information and changing the schema to incorporate the new information). 2.2.A.3 Algorithms address problems by attempting all possible solutions until the correct one is found. 2.2.A.4 Heuristics address problems by using mental shortcuts to make judgments. Using heuristics can lead to errors in judgment when decisions are made according to prior expectations or stereotypes (representativeness heuristic) or recalling the first or most vivid example that comes to mind (availability heuristic). 2.2.A.5 Decision making can be influenced by prior experiences that were successful (mental set) or circumstances surrounding a decision (priming and framing). 2.2.A.6 Cognitive processes such as gambler’s fallacy and sunk-cost fallacy can hinder people from making good decisions. 2.2.A.7 Executive functions are cognitive processes that allow individuals to generate, organize, plan, and carry out goal-directed behaviors and experience critical thinking. 2.2.A.8 Creativity is a way of thinking that includes generating novel ideas and engaging in divergent (versus convergent) thinking. Creative thinking is hindered by functional fixedness.

Learning Objective

Essential Knowledge

2.2.A
Explain how psychological concepts and theories account for thinking, problem-solving, judgment, and decision-making.

2.2.A.1 Concepts form the basis of thought. Prototypes are the ideal example for any given concept.
2.2.A.2 People form and modify schemas, or frameworks for thinking, through assimilation (taking in new information but not changing the schema in light of it) and accommodation (taking in new information and changing the schema to incorporate the new information).
2.2.A.3 Algorithms address problems by attempting all possible solutions until the correct one is found.
2.2.A.4 Heuristics address problems by using mental shortcuts to make judgments. Using heuristics can lead to errors in judgment when decisions are made according to prior expectations or stereotypes (representativeness heuristic) or recalling the first or most vivid example that comes to mind (availability heuristic).
2.2.A.5 Decision making can be influenced by prior experiences that were successful (mental set) or circumstances surrounding a decision (priming and framing).
2.2.A.6 Cognitive processes such as gambler’s fallacy and sunk-cost fallacy can hinder people from making good decisions.
2.2.A.7 Executive functions are cognitive processes that allow individuals to generate, organize, plan, and carry out goal-directed behaviors and experience critical thinking.
2.2.A.8 Creativity is a way of thinking that includes generating novel ideas and engaging in divergent (versus convergent) thinking. Creative thinking is hindered by functional fixedness.

Source: College Board AP Course and Exam Description

Concepts 概念 are the basis of thought, and a prototype 原型 is the best example of a concept. People build and change schemas through assimilation 同化 (fitting new information into an existing schema) and accommodation 顺应 (changing the schema to fit new information).

Two ways to solve a problem:

An algorithm 算法 is a systematic procedure. The course contrasts searching possible solutions until a correct one is found with using a shortcut. Exhaustive search succeeds when the possibilities can all be checked, a solution exists within them, and the checker works. Algorithms are not always exhaustive or slow.
A heuristic 启发式 is a mental shortcut. It is fast but can lead to error - the representativeness heuristic 代表性启发式 judges by how well something matches a prototype, and the availability heuristic 可得性启发式 judges by how easily examples come to mind.

Worked search comparison. A classroom puzzle has eight possible answers, A–H, exactly one correct answer and a reliable checker. Testing A, then B and continuing in order systematically covers the possibilities. Starting with D because similar puzzles used D is a heuristic: it may save time but may mislead. The guarantee of the systematic search depends on the finite set, the included solution and the checker.

Worked judgement comparison. Judging cycling accidents to be common because vivid crash reports come easily to mind illustrates availability: ease of recall alone does not establish frequency. Assuming a quiet person who likes books must be a librarian illustrates representativeness: resemblance to a prototype replaces consideration of other relevant information. Identify the cue used, rather than assuming every shortcut gives a wrong answer.

Thinking can also get stuck. A mental set 心向 is the tendency to repeat a solution that worked before. Functional fixedness 功能固着 is seeing an object only in its usual use. The gambler's fallacy 赌徒谬误 (believing a run must end) and the sunk-cost fallacy 沉没成本谬误 (continuing because of what is already spent) both hinder good decisions.

Executive functions 执行功能 let people generate, organise, plan, and carry out goals. Creativity 创造力 involves divergent thinking 发散思维 (generating many ideas) rather than convergent thinking 聚合思维 (narrowing to one answer).

Every shortcut swaps a hard question for an easy one

Explore

Name the shortcut in each scenario

Every heuristic swaps a hard question for an easy one — and naming the swap is what identifies it.

Vocabulary Train

English
Concepts/ˈkɒnsepts/
prototype/ˈprəʊtəʊtaɪp/
assimilation/əˌsɪmɪˈleɪʃn/
accommodation/əˌkɒməˈdeɪʃn/
algorithm/ˈælɡərɪθəm/
heuristic/hjuːˈrɪstɪk/
representativeness heuristic/ˌreprɪˈzentətɪvnəs hjuːˈrɪstɪk/
availability heuristic/əˌveɪləˈbɪlɪti hjuːˈrɪstɪk/
mental set/ˈmentl set/
Functional fixedness/ˈfʌŋkʃənl ˈfɪkstnəs/
gambler's fallacy/ˈɡæmbləz ˈfæləsi/
sunk-cost fallacy/sʌŋk kɒst ˈfæləsi/
Executive functions/eɡˈzekjuːtɪv ˈfʌŋkʃnz/
Creativity/kriːˌeɪˈtɪvɪti/
divergent thinking/daɪˈvɜːdʒənt ˈθɪŋkɪŋ/
convergent thinking/kənˈvɜːdʒənt ˈθɪŋkɪŋ/

2.3

Memory Systems

Syllabus

Learning Objective	Essential Knowledge
2.3.A Explain how the types, structures, and processes of memory work.	2.3.A.1 Memories for learned knowledge, events, and experiences are differentiated by how they are processed by, stored in, and retrieved by the brain. 2.3.A.1.i Explicit memory is a type of memory that is more easily described or explained to others. Types of explicit memory include episodic and semantic. 2.3.A.1.ii Implicit memory is more challenging to describe or explain to others. Procedural memory is a type of implicit memory for procedures and processes. 2.3.A.1.iii Prospective memory is a type of memory related to future actions. 2.3.A.2 Long-term potentiation, a process by which synaptic connections between neurons become stronger with frequent activation, is a biological process for memory. 2.3.A.3 The working memory model examines how our primary memory system—working memory— engages in a dynamic interaction with several components, namely the central executive, phonological loop, and visuospatial sketchpad, to process information into long-term memory. 2.3.A.4 The multi-store model proposes three interacting systems (sensory memory [including iconic and echoic memory], short-term memory, and long-term memory) that information must pass through to be remembered. This model focuses on the impact of automatic and effortful processing on memory encoding, storage, and retrieval. 2.3.A.5 The levels of processing model proposes that memory is encoded on three levels from shallowest to deepest: structural, phonemic, and semantic.

Learning Objective

Essential Knowledge

2.3.A
Explain how the types, structures, and processes of memory work.

2.3.A.1 Memories for learned knowledge, events, and experiences are differentiated by how they are processed by, stored in, and retrieved by the brain.
- 2.3.A.1.i Explicit memory is a type of memory that is more easily described or explained to others. Types of explicit memory include episodic and semantic.
- 2.3.A.1.ii Implicit memory is more challenging to describe or explain to others. Procedural memory is a type of implicit memory for procedures and processes.
- 2.3.A.1.iii Prospective memory is a type of memory related to future actions.
2.3.A.2 Long-term potentiation, a process by which synaptic connections between neurons become stronger with frequent activation, is a biological process for memory.
2.3.A.3 The working memory model examines how our primary memory system—working memory— engages in a dynamic interaction with several components, namely the central executive, phonological loop, and visuospatial sketchpad, to process information into long-term memory.
2.3.A.4 The multi-store model proposes three interacting systems (sensory memory [including iconic and echoic memory], short-term memory, and long-term memory) that information must pass through to be remembered. This model focuses on the impact of automatic and effortful processing on memory encoding, storage, and retrieval.
2.3.A.5 The levels of processing model proposes that memory is encoded on three levels from shallowest to deepest: structural, phonemic, and semantic.

Source: College Board AP Course and Exam Description

Three memory models side by side: the multi-store flow, working memory's components, and the levels-of-processing depth scale — The three examinable memory models: information flows through stores, is actively held in working memory, and is remembered better when processed deeply

Memory is divided by how information is processed.

Explicit memory 外显记忆 can be described to others. It splits into episodic memory 情景记忆 (personal events) and semantic memory 语义记忆 (facts). Implicit memory 内隐记忆 is harder to describe, and includes procedural memory 程序性记忆 (skills such as riding a bike). Prospective memory 前瞻记忆 is remembering to do something later.

Long-term potentiation 长时程增强 is the biological basis: synaptic connections grow stronger with repeated use.

Three models are examinable:

The multi-store model 多重存储模型 proposes sensory memory 感觉记忆 (including iconic 图像记忆 and echoic 声像记忆 stores), short-term memory 短时记忆, and long-term memory 长时记忆.
The working memory model 工作记忆模型 treats the middle stage as active, not a waiting room. It has a phonological loop 语音回路, a visuospatial sketchpad 视空间模板, and a central executive 中央执行系统.
The levels of processing model 加工水平模型 says deeper processing gives better memory: shallow processing of appearance, then sound, then deep processing of meaning.

Worked model comparison. Noor briefly sees route directions, repeats the street names while planning turns, and recalls the route the next day. The multi-store model helps distinguish sensory, short-term and long-term demands. The working memory model explains active processing: the phonological loop supports the names, the visuospatial sketchpad supports the mental route, and the central executive coordinates attention. The levels of processing model predicts a benefit from connecting a street name's meaning to a familiar place, compared with only noticing its shape or sound. These are model applications, not proof that a memory moves through literal boxes.

Vocabulary Train

English
Explicit memory/ekˈsplɪsɪt ˈmeməri/
episodic memory/ˌepɪˈsɒdɪk ˈmeməri/
semantic memory/səˈmæntɪk ˈmeməri/
Implicit memory/ɪmˈplɪsɪt ˈmeməri/
procedural memory/prəˈsiːdʒərəl ˈmeməri/
Prospective memory/prəˈspektɪv ˈmeməri/
Long-term potentiation/lɒŋ tɜːm pəˌtenʃɪˈeɪʃn/
multi-store model/ˈmʌlti stɔː ˈmɒdl/
sensory memory/ˈsensəri ˈmeməri/
iconic/aɪˈkɒnɪk/
echoic/eˈkəʊɪk/
short-term memory/ʃɔːt tɜːm ˈmeməri/
long-term memory/lɒŋ tɜːm ˈmeməri/
working memory model/ˈwɜːkɪŋ ˈmeməri ˈmɒdl/
phonological loop/ˌfɒnəˈlɒdʒɪkl luːp/
visuospatial sketchpad/ˌvɪsjuːəˈspeɪʃl ˈsketʃpæd/
central executive/ˈsentrəl eɡˈzekjuːtɪv/
levels of processing model/ˈlevlz ɒv ˈprəʊsesɪŋ ˈmɒdl/

2.4 2.5

Encoding and Storing

Syllabus

Learning Objective	Essential Knowledge
2.4.A Explain how different encoding processes work to get information into memory.	2.4.A.1 Encoding involves processes and strategies to get information into memory. How information is encoded can determine how effectively information is stored and retrieved. 2.4.A.2 Mnemonic devices, such as method of loci, are processes that aid in encoding information into working and long-term memory. 2.4.A.3 Encoding can be improved by the process of grouping information together into meaningful chunks (“chunking”), categories, or hierarchies. 2.4.A.4 The spacing effect is a process that can cause significant differences in encoding and memory consolidation depending on whether the information is encoded all at once (massed practice) or distributed over time (distributed practice). 2.4.A.5 Encoding processes can be affected by the order of how the information is presented, called the serial position effect. The serial position effect predicts that information presented at the beginning of a list (primacy effect) or the end of a list (recency effect) will be more memorable than information presented in the middle of a list.

Learning Objective

Essential Knowledge

2.4.A
Explain how different encoding processes work to get information into memory.

2.4.A.1 Encoding involves processes and strategies to get information into memory. How information is encoded can determine how effectively information is stored and retrieved.
2.4.A.2 Mnemonic devices, such as method of loci, are processes that aid in encoding information into working and long-term memory.
2.4.A.3 Encoding can be improved by the process of grouping information together into meaningful chunks (“chunking”), categories, or hierarchies.
2.4.A.4 The spacing effect is a process that can cause significant differences in encoding and memory consolidation depending on whether the information is encoded all at once (massed practice) or distributed over time (distributed practice).
2.4.A.5 Encoding processes can be affected by the order of how the information is presented, called the serial position effect. The serial position effect predicts that information presented at the beginning of a list (primacy effect) or the end of a list (recency effect) will be more memorable than information presented in the middle of a list.

Learning Objective	Essential Knowledge
2.5.A Explain how memory storage processes retain information in memory.	2.5.A.1 Sensory memory, short-term memory, working memory, and long-term memory are processes that differ in storage duration, capacity, and content. 2.5.A.2 Storage may be prolonged by rehearsing information over time (maintenance rehearsal). Rehearsing information over time in ways that promote meaning (elaborative rehearsal) helps with memory retention. 2.5.A.3 Some people demonstrate highly superior autobiographical memory which may indicate that there are biological processes for superior memory storage. Autobiographical memory may also explain why memories connected to our own lives or selves are more memorable. 2.5.A.4 Storage processes may be negatively affected by physical impairment and developmental limitations, such as amnesia (retrograde and anterograde), Alzheimer’s disease, and infantile amnesia.

Learning Objective

Essential Knowledge

2.5.A
Explain how memory storage processes retain information in memory.

2.5.A.1 Sensory memory, short-term memory, working memory, and long-term memory are processes that differ in storage duration, capacity, and content.
2.5.A.2 Storage may be prolonged by rehearsing information over time (maintenance rehearsal). Rehearsing information over time in ways that promote meaning (elaborative rehearsal) helps with memory retention.
2.5.A.3 Some people demonstrate highly superior autobiographical memory which may indicate that there are biological processes for superior memory storage. Autobiographical memory may also explain why memories connected to our own lives or selves are more memorable.
2.5.A.4 Storage processes may be negatively affected by physical impairment and developmental limitations, such as amnesia (retrograde and anterograde), Alzheimer’s disease, and infantile amnesia.

Source: College Board AP Course and Exam Description

Encoding 编码 gets information into memory, and how you encode changes how well you remember.

Mnemonic devices 记忆术 such as the method of loci 位置法 aid encoding.
Chunking 组块 groups items into meaningful units, which raises how much short-term memory can hold.
The spacing effect 间隔效应 shows that spreading study over time beats massed practice 集中练习 (cramming).
The serial position effect 系列位置效应 means items at the start (primacy 首因效应) and end (recency 近因效应) of a list are remembered best.

Storage differs by system. Maintenance rehearsal 保持性复述 repeats information to hold it; elaborative rehearsal 精细复述 links it to what you already know and works better.

A few people show highly superior autobiographical memory 超常自传体记忆, which suggests biological differences. Storage can also be impaired: Alzheimer's disease 阿尔茨海默病 and infantile amnesia 婴儿期遗忘 both limit what can be stored or recovered.

Vocabulary Train

English
Encoding/enˈkəʊdɪŋ/
Mnemonic devices/nɪˈmɒnɪk dɪˈvaɪsɪz/
method of loci/ˈmeθəd ɒv ˈləʊsaɪ/
Chunking/ˈtʃʌŋkɪŋ/
spacing effect/ˈspeɪsɪŋ ɪˈfekt/
massed practice/mæst ˈpræktɪs/
serial position effect/ˈsɪərɪəl pəˈzɪʃn ɪˈfekt/
primacy/ˈpraɪməsi/
recency/rɪˈsensi/
Maintenance rehearsal/ˈmeɪntənəns rɪˈhɜːsl/
elaborative rehearsal/ɪˈlæbrətɪv rɪˈhɜːsl/
highly superior autobiographical memory/ˈhaɪli suːˈpɪərɪə ˌɔːtəʊˌbaɪəˈɡræfɪkl ˈmeməri/
Alzheimer's disease/ˈæltsaɪməz dɪˈziːz/
infantile amnesia/ˈɪnfəntaɪl æmˈniːzɪə/

2.6 2.7

Retrieving and Forgetting

Syllabus

Learning Objective	Essential Knowledge
2.6.A Explain how memory retrieval processes get information out of memory.	2.6.A.1 The process of memory retrieval occurs through recall (remembering without cues) or recognition (which relies on retrieval cues). 2.6.A.2 The process of memory retrieval can be enhanced when people are in the same environmental space (context-dependent memory), mood (mood-congruent memory), or physical state (state-dependent memory) as they were when they encoded the information to be retrieved. 2.6.A.3 Successful retrieval is more likely when using retrieval practice processes, including testing effect and metacognition.

Learning Objective

Essential Knowledge

2.6.A
Explain how memory retrieval processes get information out of memory.

2.6.A.1 The process of memory retrieval occurs through recall (remembering without cues) or recognition (which relies on retrieval cues).
2.6.A.2 The process of memory retrieval can be enhanced when people are in the same environmental space (context-dependent memory), mood (mood-congruent memory), or physical state (state-dependent memory) as they were when they encoded the information to be retrieved.
2.6.A.3 Successful retrieval is more likely when using retrieval practice processes, including testing effect and metacognition.

Learning Objective	Essential Knowledge
2.7.A Explain possible reasons why memory failure or errors may occur.	2.7.A.1 The forgetting curve shows that time is a significant factor in forgetting. Forgetting occurs rapidly after initial learning and levels off over time. 2.7.A.2 Many memories are difficult to retrieve due to encoding failure, interference (proactive or retroactive), or inadequate retrieval (i.e., tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon). 2.7.A.3 Psychodynamic theorists believe that information or memories can be forgotten to defend the ego from distress (repression). 2.7.A.4 The accuracy of memories may be affected by the misinformation effect, source amnesia, or constructive memory (via memory consolidation and imagination inflation).

Learning Objective

Essential Knowledge

2.7.A
Explain possible reasons why memory failure or errors may occur.

2.7.A.1 The forgetting curve shows that time is a significant factor in forgetting. Forgetting occurs rapidly after initial learning and levels off over time.
2.7.A.2 Many memories are difficult to retrieve due to encoding failure, interference (proactive or retroactive), or inadequate retrieval (i.e., tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon).
2.7.A.3 Psychodynamic theorists believe that information or memories can be forgotten to defend the ego from distress (repression).
2.7.A.4 The accuracy of memories may be affected by the misinformation effect, source amnesia, or constructive memory (via memory consolidation and imagination inflation).

Source: College Board AP Course and Exam Description

Retrieval takes two forms: recall 回忆 (producing information without cues) and recognition 再认 (identifying it among options). Recognition is easier, which is why a multiple-choice question feels easier than an essay.

Retrieval improves with matching conditions. Context-dependent memory 情境依存记忆 works better in the same place; state-dependent memory 状态依存记忆 works better in the same physical state; mood-congruent memory 心境一致性记忆 recalls material matching your current mood. Practising retrieval helps too - the testing effect 测试效应 shows that testing yourself beats rereading.

Forgetting has several causes. The forgetting curve 遗忘曲线 shows loss is fastest right after learning. Encoding failure 编码失败 means it never got in. Interference 干扰 can be proactive 前摄干扰 (old learning blocks new) or retroactive 倒摄干扰 (new blocks old). Retrieval failure 提取失败 includes the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon 舌尖现象.

Memory is also reconstructive 重构的, not a recording. The misinformation effect 错误信息效应 occurs when later information changes what a person remembers. Source amnesia 来源遗忘 is remembering the information but not where it came from.

Worked example: 2025 Article Analysis Question, Part F. After viewing a video, participants received summaries with different amounts of misinformation. Mean correct responses were 74% in the low-misinformation group and 63% in the high group; mean misled responses were 19% and 30%, respectively. An original worked response is: "Participants in the high-misinformation group chose misleading answers on 30% of responses, compared with 19% in the low group. This supports the misinformation effect because more later misleading detail was reflected in participants' reports of the earlier video." The difference is 11 percentage points. The misled category specifically identifies answers matching the later false details. The official criterion requires an accurately interpreted specific finding linked to the concept; a definition alone or an unexplained number is insufficient for both points. A relevant qualitative finding can also supply evidence.

Four different failures, all reported as forgetting - the tell is what a cue does

Explore

Diagnose which stage the memory failed at

Four different failures are all reported as forgetting. The tell is what happens when a cue is given.

Vocabulary Train

English
recall/ˈriːkɔːl/
recognition/ˌrekəɡˈnɪʃn/
Context-dependent memory/ˈkɒntekst dɪˈpendənt ˈmeməri/
state-dependent memory/steɪt dɪˈpendənt ˈmeməri/
mood-congruent memory/muːd ˈkɒŋɡruːənt ˈmeməri/
testing effect/ˈtestɪŋ ɪˈfekt/
forgetting curve/fəˈɡetɪŋ kɜːv/
Encoding failure/enˈkəʊdɪŋ ˈfeɪlɪə/
Interference/ˌɪntəˈfɪərəns/
proactive/prəʊˈæktɪv/
retroactive/ˌretrəʊˈæktɪv/
Retrieval failure/rɪˈtriːvl ˈfeɪlɪə/
tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon/tɪp ɒvðə tʌŋ fɪˈnɒmɪnən/
reconstructive/ˌriːkənˈstrʌktɪv/
misinformation effect/ˌmɪsɪnfəˈmeɪʃn ɪˈfekt/
Source amnesia/sɔːs æmˈniːzɪə/

2.8

Intelligence and Testing

Syllabus

Learning Objective	Essential Knowledge
2.8.A Explain how modern and historical theories describe intelligence.	2.8.A.1 Throughout history, consensus about how to define and measure intelligence continues to be elusive and can be subject to bias. Researchers debate whether intelligence is a general ability (called g) or is comprised of multiple abilities.
2.8.B Explain how intelligence is measured.	2.8.B.1 Early formal intelligence tests yielded an intelligence quotient (IQ), which divided mental age by chronological age. In modern times, IQ scores are often used to identify students for educational services. Exclusion Statement: Labeling or describing cognitive abilities and disabilities are outside the scope of the AP Psychology Exam. 2.8.B.2 All psychological assessments, including intelligence tests, should adhere to sound psychometric principles to be considered useful. 2.8.B.2.i A test is said to be standardized when it is administered using consistent procedures and environments. 2.8.B.2.ii A test is considered valid if it measures what it is designed to measure. Types of validity include construct and predictive. 2.8.B.2.iii A test is considered reliable if it yields similar results each time it is administered. Types of reliability include test-retest and split-half. 2.8.B.3 Researchers strive to develop assessments of intelligence that are socio-culturally responsive to reduce stereotype threat and potential inequity that may occur due to stereotype lift.
2.8.C Explain how systemic issues relate to the quantitative and qualitative uses of intelligence assessments.	2.8.C.1 IQ scores across much of the world have generally increased over time (Flynn Effect) due to societal factors, such as higher socioeconomic status and access to better health care and better nutrition. 2.8.C.2 IQ scores tend to vary more within a group than between groups. Personal and sociocultural biases can impact the interpretation of individual IQ scores and the score’s relationship with other outcomes. Poverty, discrimination, and educational inequities can negatively influence intelligence scores of individuals and societal groups around the world. 2.8.C.3 Scores from intelligence tests have been used to limit access to jobs, military ranks, educational institutions, and immigration to the US.
2.8.D Explain how academic achievement is measured and experienced as compared to intelligence.	2.8.D.1 Some academic tests attempt to measure what someone knows (achievement tests) or predict how someone will perform in the future (aptitude tests). 2.8.D.2 People’s beliefs about whether intelligence is fixed from birth (fixed mindset) or malleable due to experience (growth mindset) can affect academic achievement.

Source: College Board AP Course and Exam Description

Psychologists still disagree about how to define intelligence 智力. Spearman's g 一般智力因素 proposes one general ability; other theories propose several, including fluid intelligence 流体智力 (reasoning with novel problems, which declines with age) and crystallised intelligence 晶体智力 (accumulated knowledge, which does not).

Early tests produced an intelligence quotient (IQ) 智商 by dividing mental age by chronological age. Modern scores are compared with a normal curve 正态曲线 of the population.

Any psychological assessment must meet psychometric principles 心理测量学原则:

Standardization 标准化 - the test is administered and scored using consistent procedures and conditions. Norm-based interpretation additionally uses an appropriate comparison group.
Validity 效度 - it measures what it claims to. Construct validity 构念效度 and predictive validity 预测效度 are both examinable.
Reliability 信度 - it gives similar results each time, checked by test-retest reliability 重测信度 and split-half reliability 分半信度.

Worked testing comparison. A proposed spatial-reasoning test uses the same instructions, time and conditions for everyone: this supports standardization. Similar results across occasions support test-retest reliability; agreement between comparable halves supports split-half reliability. If its items mainly measure vocabulary, it has a construct-validity problem for spatial reasoning despite consistent scores. To assess predictive validity for later spatial-design course performance, compare scores with an appropriate, independently measured course outcome. Repeating the test tomorrow does not answer that prediction question. Judge validity for the stated construct or use.

The course describes general increases in IQ scores over time across much of the world (the Flynn effect 弗林效应), linked to societal factors such as nutrition, health care and socioeconomic conditions. Scores vary more within groups than between them, and stereotype threat 刻板印象威胁 can lower performance when a person fears confirming a negative stereotype about their group.

Vocabulary Train

English
intelligence/ɪnˈtelɪdʒəns/
Spearman's g/ˈspɪəmənz dʒiː/
fluid intelligence/ˈfluːɪd ɪnˈtelɪdʒəns/
crystallised intelligence/ˈkrɪstəlaɪzd ɪnˈtelɪdʒəns/
intelligence quotient (IQ)/ɪnˈtelɪdʒəns ˈkwəʊʃənt/
normal curve/ˈnɔːml kɜːv/
psychometric principles/ˌsaɪkəʊˈmetrɪk ˈprɪnsɪplz/
Standardization/ˌstændədaɪˈzeɪʃn/
Validity/væˈlɪdɪti/
Construct validity/ˈkɒnstrʌkt væˈlɪdɪti/
predictive validity/prɪˈdɪktɪv væˈlɪdɪti/
Reliability/rɪˌlaɪəˈbɪlɪti/
test-retest reliability/test rɪˈtest rɪˌlaɪəˈbɪlɪti/
split-half reliability/splɪt hɑːf rɪˌlaɪəˈbɪlɪti/
Flynn effect/flɪn ɪˈfekt/
stereotype threat/ˈsterɪəʊtaɪp θret/

2.8

Exam tips

Keep sensation and perception apart: detecting is sensation, interpreting is perception.
Bottom-up starts with the stimulus; top-down starts with expectation. Say which the scenario shows.
Learn the interference pair by direction: proactive means old material acts forward onto new.
For encoding questions, name a specific strategy - chunking, spacing, elaborative rehearsal - not "studying harder".
On testing questions, separate reliability from validity. A test can be reliable and still measure the wrong thing.
Use a specific finding and explain how it supports or refutes the concept. A relevant qualitative result can also supply evidence.