Cambridge IGCSE IGCSE, A-Level & AP Sheet preview

Development and Learning

AP Psychology · Topic 3

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3.1

Studying Development
Syllabus
Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

3.1.A
Explain how enduring themes inform developmental psychology.

  • 3.1.A.1 Developmental psychology is concerned with both chronological order of development and/ or thematic issues in development across the lifespan. Thematic issues of interest to developmental psychologists include stability and change, nature and nurture, and continuous and discontinuous stages of development.

3.1.B
Describe ways cross-sectional and longitudinal research design methods used in developmental psychology inform understanding about behavior and mental processes.

Source: College Board AP Course and Exam Description

Developmental psychology 发展心理学 studies how people change across the lifespan. Two questions run through the whole unit.

  • Is change continuous 连续的 (gradual and smooth) or discontinuous 不连续的 (in stages)?
  • Is a trait stable 稳定的 across life, or does it change?

Researchers answer these with two designs. A cross-sectional study 横断研究 compares different age groups at one time - fast, but differences may come from the groups' different generations. A longitudinal study 纵向研究 follows the same people over years - slower, but it shows real change within a person.

Vocabulary Train
English Chinese Pinyin
Developmental psychology 发展心理学 fā zhǎn xīn lǐ xué
continuous 连续的 lián xù de
discontinuous 不连续的 bù lián xù de
stable 稳定的 wěn dìng de
cross-sectional study 横断研究 héng duàn yán jiū
longitudinal study 纵向研究 zòng xiàng yán jiū
3.2

Physical Development
Syllabus
Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

3.2.A
Explain how physical development before birth applies to behavior and mental processes.

  • 3.2.A.1 Teratogens, maternal illness, genetic mutations, hormonal, and environmental factors can influence the major physical and psychological milestones that occur during prenatal development.
    • Exclusion Statement: The stages of prenatal development (zygote, embryo, and fetus) are outside the scope of the AP Psychology Exam.

3.2.B
Explain how physical development in infancy and childhood apply to behavior and mental processes.

  • 3.2.B.1 Physical development in infancy and childhood happens in generally the same order, but the timing of the development can vary. The development of fine and gross motor coordination is among the major physical and psychological milestones that define infancy and childhood. These physical skills develop as children mature, allowing children to develop critical skills needed to become more independent.
  • 3.2.B.2 Infants possess reflexes, like the rooting reflex, that indicate on-track physical and psychological milestone development.
  • 3.2.B.3 Research using the visual cliff apparatus demonstrates an early ability in infants to perceive depth and an innovative way to assess infant responses.
  • 3.2.B.4 Research suggests that critical or sensitive periods in infancy and childhood have strong developmental effects, especially for skills such as language. Some non-human animals will imprint on the first object they encounter as a means of survival.

3.2.C
Explain how physical development in adolescence applies to behavior and mental processes.

  • 3.2.C.1 The main physical and psychological milestones that occur in adolescence are the adolescent growth spurt and puberty, in which reproductive ability develops. Adolescents develop primary and secondary sex characteristics during this time, such as menarche and spermarche.

3.2.D
Explain how physical development in adulthood applies to behavior and mental processes.

  • 3.2.D.1 Adulthood spans most of the lifespan and is characterized by a general leveling off and then a varying decline in reproductive ability (i.e., menopause), mobility, flexibility, reaction time, and visual and auditory sensory acuity.

Source: College Board AP Course and Exam Description

Development before birth can be disrupted by teratogens 致畸物 (harmful agents such as alcohol), maternal illness, genetic mutations, and hormonal or environmental factors.

Infant physical development follows the same general order everywhere, though the rate varies. Newborns show reflexes 反射 that indicate healthy development, such as the rooting reflex 觅食反射 (turning towards a touch on the cheek). The visual cliff 视崖 experiment shows that infants perceive depth early.

A critical period 关键期 is a window in which a particular experience has an unusually strong effect; a sensitive period 敏感期 is a softer version of the same idea.

Adolescence 青春期 brings the adolescent growth spurt 青春期发育突增 and puberty 青春发育期, including primary sex characteristics 第一性征 and secondary sex characteristics 第二性征. Adulthood spans most of life and is marked by a gradual levelling off, then decline - including menopause 更年期 in women.

Vocabulary Train
English Chinese Pinyin
teratogens 致畸物 zhì jī wù
reflexes 反射 fǎn shè
rooting reflex 觅食反射 mì shí fǎn shè
visual cliff 视崖 shì yá
critical period 关键期 guān jiàn qī
sensitive period 敏感期 mǐn gǎn qī
Adolescence 青春期 qīng chūn qī
adolescent growth spurt 青春期发育突增 qīng chūn qī fā yù tū zēng
puberty 青春发育期 qīng chūn fā yù qī
primary sex characteristics 第一性征 dì yī xìng zhēng
secondary sex characteristics 第二性征 dì èr xìng zhēng
menopause 更年期 gēng nián qī
3.3

Gender and Sexual Orientation
Syllabus
Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

3.3.A
Describe how sex and gender influence socialization and other aspects of development.

Source: College Board AP Course and Exam Description

Sex 生理性别 refers to biological characteristics, while gender 社会性别 refers to the roles and expectations a society attaches to them. Gender roles 性别角色 are learned through socialization 社会化: family, school, peers, and media all teach what behaviour is expected. Sexual orientation 性取向 describes a person's enduring pattern of attraction. The exam asks how sex and gender influence socialization and development, not for any evaluation of individuals.

Vocabulary Train
English Chinese Pinyin
Sex 生理性别 shēng lǐ xìng bié
gender 社会性别 shè huì xìng bié
Gender roles 性别角色 xìng bié jué sè
socialization 社会化 shè huì huà
Sexual orientation 性取向 xìng qǔ xiàng
3.4

Cognitive Development
Syllabus
Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

3.4.A
Explain how theories of cognitive development apply to behavior and mental processes.

  • 3.4.A.1 According to Piaget, children develop schemas via continuous and discontinuous processes such as assimilation and accommodation.
    • 3.4.A.1.i The sensorimotor stage occurs from infancy through toddlerhood. Object permanence develops during this stage.
    • 3.4.A.1.ii The preoperational stage occurs from toddlerhood through early childhood. Children become proficient in using mental symbols and engage in pretend play. The preoperational stage is identified more by cognitive tasks children cannot perform such as conservation and reversibility, or by those they exhibit, such as animism and egocentrism. Children begin to develop a theory of mind during this stage.
    • 3.4.A.1.iii The concrete operational stage occurs from early through late childhood. Children in this stage can generally correct the cognitive errors made in the preoperational stage and understand the world in logical, realistic, and straightforward ways, but struggle to think systematically.
    • 3.4.A.1.iv The formal operational stage occurs from late childhood through adulthood. People in this stage gain the ability to think abstractly and hypothetically. Piaget proposed that not all people achieve formal operational thinking.
  • 3.4.A.2 According to Vygotsky, children are social learners who learn through interacting with and scaffolding by other people within sociocultural contexts. Ideally, learning occurs while the person is in their zone of proximal development.
  • 3.4.A.3 Adults experience changes in cognitive capabilities as they progress through the lifespan. Crystallized intelligence remains relatively stable through adulthood while fluid intelligence tends to wane as people age. Cognitive disorders that affect adults include dementia.

Source: College Board AP Course and Exam Description

Piaget's four stages as a ladder, each with its age band and the achievement that defines it
Piaget's four stages, each defined by what the child can newly do

Piaget 皮亚杰 proposed that children build schemas and pass through four stages:

  • Sensorimotor stage 感知运动阶段 (infancy to toddlerhood): the child learns through senses and action, and develops object permanence 客体永久性 - knowing an object still exists when hidden.
  • Preoperational stage 前运算阶段 (toddlerhood to early childhood): the child uses symbols and pretend play but shows egocentrism 自我中心 (difficulty taking another view) and lacks conservation 守恒 (knowing quantity stays the same when shape changes).
  • Concrete operational stage 具体运算阶段 (early to late childhood): the child reasons logically about concrete things and gains conservation.
  • Formal operational stage 形式运算阶段 (late childhood onward): abstract and hypothetical reasoning becomes possible.

Vygotsky 维果茨基 saw children as social learners. The zone of proximal development 最近发展区 is the gap between what a child can do alone and what they can do with help; scaffolding 支架 is the support that closes it.

Adult cognition changes too, and here the fluid/crystallised split from Unit 2 returns: reasoning speed declines while accumulated knowledge does not. Dementia 痴呆 is a decline beyond normal ageing.

Vocabulary Train
English Chinese Pinyin
Piaget 皮亚杰 pí yà jié
Sensorimotor stage 感知运动阶段 gǎn zhī yùn dòng jiē duàn
object permanence 客体永久性 kè tǐ yǒng jiǔ xìng
Preoperational stage 前运算阶段 qián yùn suàn jiē duàn
egocentrism 自我中心 zì wǒ zhōng xīn
conservation 守恒 shǒu héng
Concrete operational stage 具体运算阶段 jù tǐ yùn suàn jiē duàn
Formal operational stage 形式运算阶段 xíng shì yùn suàn jiē duàn
Vygotsky 维果茨基 wéi guǒ cí jī
zone of proximal development 最近发展区 zuì jìn fā zhǎn qū
scaffolding 支架 zhī jià
Dementia 痴呆 chī dāi
3.5

Language Development
Syllabus
Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

3.5.A
Explain how key components of language and communication apply to behavior and mental processes.

  • 3.5.A.1 Language is a shared (mutually agreed upon) system of arbitrary symbols (often expressed as and combined into phonemes, morphemes, and semantics) that are rule-governed (via grammar and syntax) and generative to produce an infinity of ideas.
    • Exclusion Statement: Pragmatics of language are outside the scope of the AP Psychology Exam.

3.5.B
Explain how language develops in humans.

  • 3.5.B.1 In language development across all cultures, people use nonverbal manual gestures (e.g., pointing) to communicate and develop formal language through specific stages (cooing, babbling, one-word stage, and telegraphic speech). People learning a language often make errors such as overgeneralization of language rules as they learn.

Source: College Board AP Course and Exam Description

Language 语言 is a shared system of arbitrary symbols used to communicate. Development follows a common sequence: nonverbal gestures 手势, then cooing 咕咕声, babbling 咿呀语, the one-word stage 单词阶段, and telegraphic speech 电报式语言 (two-word combinations).

Children generalise rules before they master exceptions, which produces overgeneralization 过度规则化 - saying "goed" instead of "went". This is evidence that they are learning rules, not just copying.

Vocabulary Train
English Chinese Pinyin
Language 语言 yǔ yán
gestures 手势 shǒu shì
cooing 咕咕声 gū gū shēng
babbling 咿呀语 yī yā yǔ
one-word stage 单词阶段 dān cí jiē duàn
telegraphic speech 电报式语言 diàn bào shì yǔ yán
overgeneralization 过度规则化 guò dù guī zé huà
3.6

Social and Emotional Development
Syllabus
Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

3.6.A
Explain how social development relates to behavior and mental processes.

  • 3.6.A.1 The ecological systems theory explores how the social environment influences development. The five systems in this theory are as follows: Bullet Microsystem (groups that have direct contact with the individual) Bullet Mesosystem (the relationships between groups in the microsystem) Bullet Exosystem (indirect factors in an individual’s life) Bullet Macrosystem (cultural events that affect the individuals and others around them) Bullet Chronosystem (the individual’s current stage of life).
  • 3.6.A.2 Research has identified different parenting styles of caregivers, including authoritarian, authoritative, and permissive. Cultural differences exist in the ways these parenting styles affect outcomes in caregivers and children.
  • 3.6.A.3 Research has identified different attachment styles demonstrated by infants and children, which vary by culture. The types of attachment infants and children display include secure and insecure (avoidant, anxious, and disorganized). Temperament is related to how children attach to caregivers.
    • 3.6.A.3.i Separation anxiety occurs when children express heightened anxiety or fear when away from a caregiver or in the presence of a stranger.
    • 3.6.A.3.ii Studies with monkeys demonstrate the importance of comfort over food in attachment.
  • 3.6.A.4 Developmental psychologists study how peer relationships develop over time.
    • 3.6.A.4.i Children engage with peers via play (parallel and pretend).
    • 3.6.A.4.ii Adolescents gradually rely more on peer relationships as they age. As adolescents interact with peers, they demonstrate a type of egocentrism that is often demonstrated via the imaginary audience and the personal fable.
  • 3.6.A.5 Developmental psychologists study how adults develop socially over time.
    • 3.6.A.5.i Culture plays a role in determining when adulthood begins and when major life events occur (social clock). Some cultures allow for a time of emerging adulthood as a transition from adolescence to adulthood.
    • 3.6.A.5.ii Relationships with other adults result in adults forming families or family-like relationships that should provide mutual support and care. Childhood attachment styles can affect how adults form attachments to other adults.
  • 3.6.A.6 The stage theory of psychosocial development, which was a reconceptualization of the psychosexual theory, proposes that people must resolve psychosocial conflicts at each stage of the lifespan. The stages are as follows: Bullet Trust and mistrust Bullet Autonomy and shame and doubt Bullet Initiative and guilt Bullet Industry and inferiority Bullet Identity and role confusion Bullet Intimacy and isolation Bullet Generativity and stagnation Bullet Integrity and despair
    • Exclusion Statement: The psychosexual stage theory of development is outside of the scope of the AP Psychology Exam.
  • 3.6.A.7 The experience of adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) has effects on relationships people form throughout the lifespan. Sociocultural differences exist in what is considered an ACE and how ACEs affect outcomes people may experience.
  • 3.6.A.8 Adolescents develop a sense of identity for who they will be as an adult through the processes of achievement, diffusion, foreclosure, and moratorium. Identity development also includes processes for developing identities such as racial/ethnic identity, gender identity, sexual orientation, religious identity, occupational identity, and familial identity, often through considering possible selves.

Source: College Board AP Course and Exam Description

Ecological systems theory 生态系统理论 describes development as nested environments, from the immediate family outwards to culture.

Research identifies parenting styles 教养方式: authoritarian 专制型 (high demands, low warmth), authoritative 权威型 (high demands, high warmth), and permissive 放任型 (low demands, high warmth).

Attachment 依恋 is the emotional bond between infant and caregiver, studied with the strange situation 陌生情境 procedure. Styles include secure attachment 安全型依恋 and insecure forms (avoidant 回避型, anxious 焦虑型, disorganized 混乱型). Separation anxiety 分离焦虑 is heightened distress when away from a caregiver. Studies with monkeys showed that infants prefer contact comfort 接触安慰 over food, which changed how attachment was understood.

Peer relationships develop through parallel play 平行游戏 and pretend play 假装游戏 in childhood, and adolescents rely on peers more as they age.

Erikson 埃里克森 proposed a stage theory of psychosocial development 心理社会发展, in which each stage poses a conflict to resolve - the adolescent stage being identity versus role confusion 同一性与角色混乱. Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) 童年不良经历 affect later relationships and health.

Vocabulary Train
English Chinese Pinyin
Ecological systems theory 生态系统理论 shēng tài xì tǒng lǐ lùn
parenting styles 教养方式 jiào yǎng fāng shì
authoritarian 专制型 zhuān zhì xíng
authoritative 权威型 quán wēi xíng
permissive 放任型 fàng rèn xíng
Attachment 依恋 yī liàn
strange situation 陌生情境 mò shēng qíng jìng
secure attachment 安全型依恋 ān quán xíng yī liàn
avoidant 回避型 huí bì xíng
anxious 焦虑型 jiāo lǜ xíng
disorganized 混乱型 hùn luàn xíng
Separation anxiety 分离焦虑 fēn lí jiāo lǜ
contact comfort 接触安慰 jiē chù ān wèi
parallel play 平行游戏 píng xíng yóu xì
pretend play 假装游戏 jiǎ zhuāng yóu xì
Erikson 埃里克森 āi lǐ kè sēn
psychosocial development 心理社会发展 xīn lǐ shè huì fā zhǎn
identity versus role confusion 同一性与角色混乱 tóng yī xìng yǔ jué sè hùn luàn
Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) 童年不良经历 tóng nián bù liáng jīng lì
3.7

Classical Conditioning
Syllabus
Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

3.7.A
Explain how classical conditioning applies to behavior and mental processes.

  • 3.7.A.1 The behavioral perspective evolved from theories about learning via conditioning. Behaviorists have traditionally focused on observable behavior to the exclusion of mental processes.
  • 3.7.A.2 Classical conditioning focuses on the association of one stimulus with another stimulus to elicit a response. Learning the association (also known as acquisition) involves a series of steps that demonstrate principles of associative learning.
    • 3.7.A.2.i The unconditioned stimulus (UCS) elicits an unconditioned response (UCR). This response becomes the conditioned response (CR) when it is performed in response to the conditioned stimulus (CS).
    • 3.7.A.2.ii The order of presentation of the CS with the UCS is important to successful acquisition.
    • 3.7.A.2.iii A CR can become extinct when the CS is no longer paired with the UCS. A formerly extinct CR can be spontaneously recovered when the CS is again presented after extinction.
    • 3.7.A.2.iv Stimulus discrimination and generalization have been demonstrated in studies of classical conditioning.
    • 3.7.A.2.v A CS can be used as a UCS in higher-order conditioning.
      • Exclusion Statement: Delayed conditioning, trace conditioning, simultaneous conditioning, and backward conditioning are outside the scope of the AP Psychology Exam.
  • 3.7.A.3 Research has demonstrated that emotional responses can be classically conditioned. These findings form the basis of therapeutic interventions for many mental disorders, such as counterconditioning.
    • Exclusion Statement: The expectancy theory is outside the scope of the AP Psychology Exam.
  • 3.7.A.4 Research on taste aversions, which are acquired through classical conditioning, demonstrates one-trial conditioning and biological preparedness. One-trial learning occurs when the association is acquired through one pairing of the stimulus and response and is not strengthened by further pairings. Biological preparedness refers to how animals are biologically predisposed to learning certain stimulus-response pairings more quickly than others.
  • 3.7.A.5 Habituation occurs when organisms grow accustomed to and exhibit a diminished response to a repeated or enduring stimulus.

Source: College Board AP Course and Exam Description

The behavioral perspective 行为主义视角 explains behaviour through learning rather than thought.

Classical conditioning 经典条件作用 associates one stimulus with another:

  • An unconditioned stimulus (UCS) 无条件刺激 naturally produces an unconditioned response (UCR) 无条件反应 - food causes salivation.
  • A neutral stimulus 中性刺激 paired with the UCS becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) 条件刺激, producing a conditioned response (CR) 条件反应.
  • Acquisition 习得 depends on the order and timing of the pairing.
  • Extinction 消退 occurs when the CS is no longer paired with the UCS; spontaneous recovery 自发恢复 is the reappearance of an extinguished CR.
  • Generalization 泛化 is responding to similar stimuli; stimulus discrimination 刺激辨别 is responding only to the exact CS.
  • In higher-order conditioning 高级条件作用 an established CS acts as a UCS for a new one.

Emotional responses can be conditioned, and taste aversion 味觉厌恶 shows that some associations are learned in a single trial because they aided survival. Habituation 习惯化 is a diminished response to a repeated stimulus.

Vocabulary Train
English Chinese Pinyin
behavioral perspective 行为主义视角 xíng wéi zhǔ yì shì jiǎo
Classical conditioning 经典条件作用 jīng diǎn tiáo jiàn zuò yòng
unconditioned stimulus (UCS) 无条件刺激 wú tiáo jiàn cì jī
unconditioned response (UCR) 无条件反应 wú tiáo jiàn fǎn yìng
neutral stimulus 中性刺激 zhōng xìng cì jī
conditioned stimulus (CS) 条件刺激 tiáo jiàn cì jī
conditioned response (CR) 条件反应 tiáo jiàn fǎn yìng
Acquisition 习得 xí dé
Extinction 消退 xiāo tuì
spontaneous recovery 自发恢复 zì fā huī fù
Generalization 泛化 fàn huà
stimulus discrimination 刺激辨别 cì jī biàn bié
higher-order conditioning 高级条件作用 gāo jí tiáo jiàn zuò yòng
taste aversion 味觉厌恶 wèi jué yàn wù
Habituation 习惯化 xí guàn huà
3.8

Operant Conditioning
Syllabus
Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

3.8.A
Explain how operant conditioning applies to behavior and mental processes.

  • 3.8.A.1 Operant conditioning focuses on associating consequences (reinforcement and punishment) with behaviors. The Law of Effect states that behaviors with reinforcing consequences are more likely to be repeated while behaviors with punishing consequences are not as likely to be repeated.
  • 3.8.A.2 Reinforcement and punishment can be positive or negative. Reinforcers can be primary or secondary. Reinforcement discrimination and generalization have been demonstrated in studies of operant conditioning.
  • 3.8.A.3 Reinforcement can be used to shape behavior (“shaping”) gradually through rewarding successive approximations of the desired behavior. Research with animals shows that only certain behaviors can be shaped through reinforcement (known as instinctive drift).
  • 3.8.A.4 Superstitious behavior occurs when consequences reinforce unrelated behaviors. Learned helplessness occurs when organisms learn that they have no control over their experience of aversive consequences in a given situation.
  • 3.8.A.5 The schedule with which reinforcement is delivered can determine the strength of the association between the consequence and the response. The two main types of reinforcement schedules are continuous and partial. Each type of reinforcement behavior can be graphed, resulting in a distinctive pattern on the graph (e.g., fixed-interval schedule produces a scalloped graph).
    • 3.8.A.5.i Continuous reinforcement schedules deliver reinforcement for each and every correct behavior.
    • 3.8.A.5.ii The partial reinforcement schedules focus on whether reinforcement is delivered on a time-based schedule (fixed- or variable-interval) or for the number of behaviors performed (fixed- or variable-ratio).

Source: College Board AP Course and Exam Description

Operant conditioning 操作性条件作用 associates a behaviour with its consequence.

  • Reinforcement 强化 increases a behaviour; punishment 惩罚 decreases it.
  • Positive 正 means something is added; negative 负 means something is removed. So negative reinforcement 负强化 increases behaviour by removing something unpleasant - it is not punishment.
  • A primary reinforcer 原级强化物 satisfies a biological need; a secondary reinforcer 次级强化物 (money) is learned.
  • Shaping 塑造 rewards successive approximations 逐步接近 of a target behaviour.

Reinforcement schedules 强化程式 change how strong and persistent learning is. Continuous reinforcement 连续强化 rewards every response and produces fast learning but fast extinction. Partial reinforcement 部分强化 comes in four kinds - fixed-ratio 固定比率, variable-ratio 变动比率, fixed-interval 固定时距, and variable-interval 变动时距 - and variable-ratio produces the highest, most extinction-resistant rate.

Superstitious behavior 迷信行为 arises when a consequence reinforces an unrelated action. Learned helplessness 习得性无助 develops when an organism repeatedly cannot escape an aversive event and stops trying.

Vocabulary Train
English Chinese Pinyin
Operant conditioning 操作性条件作用 cāo zuò xìng tiáo jiàn zuò yòng
Reinforcement 强化 qiáng huà
punishment 惩罚 chéng fá
Positive 正 zhèng
negative 负 fù
negative reinforcement 负强化 fù qiáng huà
primary reinforcer 原级强化物 yuán jí qiáng huà wù
secondary reinforcer 次级强化物 cì jí qiáng huà wù
Shaping 塑造 sù zào
successive approximations 逐步接近 zhú bù jiē jìn
Reinforcement schedules 强化程式 qiáng huà chéng shì
Continuous reinforcement 连续强化 lián xù qiáng huà
Partial reinforcement 部分强化 bù fèn qiáng huà
fixed-ratio 固定比率 gù dìng bǐ lǜ
variable-ratio 变动比率 biàn dòng bǐ lǜ
fixed-interval 固定时距 gù dìng shí jù
variable-interval 变动时距 biàn dòng shí jù
Superstitious behavior 迷信行为 mí xìn xíng wéi
Learned helplessness 习得性无助 xí dé xìng wú zhù
3.9

Observational and Cognitive Learning
Syllabus
Learning ObjectiveEssential Knowledge

3.9.A
Explain how social learning applies to behavior and mental processes.

  • 3.9.A.1 Social learning theory proposes that learning can occur by observation and does not have to involve personal experience with a consequence (vicarious conditioning). Learning can occur by copying the behavior of models. The more similar a model is, the more likely the behavior is to be learned.

3.9.B
Explain how cognitive factors in learning apply to behavior and mental processes.

  • 3.9.B.1 Insight learning occurs when the solution to a problem occurs without any association, consequence, or model being present.
  • 3.9.B.2 Latent learning occurs when information is learned without reinforcement but is not immediately evident. Latent learning is often demonstrated by cognitive maps.

Source: College Board AP Course and Exam Description

Not all learning needs direct experience. Social learning theory 社会学习理论 shows that behaviour can be learned by observation 观察 and modeling 榜样示范 - the basis of the Bobo doll findings on imitated aggression.

Insight learning 顿悟学习 is a sudden solution with no gradual conditioning. Latent learning 潜伏学习 is learning that occurs without reinforcement and stays hidden until there is a reason to show it, demonstrated by rats forming a cognitive map 认知地图 of a maze.

Worked example (a real AP exam question). The 2024 exam described Gavin, a preschooler at a science museum: he grabbed a large glass marble and tried to bounce it, he was briefly separated from his parents, and the next day he told his grandmother about a picture he had drawn. Students had to "Explain how Jean Piaget's concept of assimilation could relate to Gavin's experience with the glass marble" and "Explain how egocentrism could relate to how Gavin interacted with his grandmother in the car". A full-mark answer defines the term and ties it to the specific detail: "Gavin already had a schema for balls, which bounce. He assimilated the marble into that schema by treating it as a ball and trying to bounce it." Notice the shape: the definition alone earns nothing, and so does retelling the story. The mark is for the join between them.

Vocabulary Train
English Chinese Pinyin
Social learning theory 社会学习理论 shè huì xué xí lǐ lùn
observation 观察 guān chá
modeling 榜样示范 bǎng yàng shì fàn
Insight learning 顿悟学习 dùn wù xué xí
Latent learning 潜伏学习 qián fú xué xí
cognitive map 认知地图 rèn zhī dì tú
3.9

Exam tips
  • Negative reinforcement increases behaviour. If you can say what was removed, and the behaviour went up, it is not punishment.
  • Match a Piaget stage to its achievement - object permanence, conservation, abstract reasoning - rather than to an age.
  • Classical conditioning links two stimuli and produces an involuntary response; operant conditioning links behaviour to consequence.
  • Variable-ratio schedules resist extinction best. Use it whenever a question describes gambling-like persistence.
  • Keep critical period for the narrow window and sensitive period for the softer one.
  • On scenario questions, name the term and then point at the detail in the scenario that proves it. The detail is what earns the mark.

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