这份讲义涵盖主题 1:进阶纯数学(Further Pure Mathematics)1。它增加新的代数、矩阵、极坐标、更多的向量,以及归纳证明。
A-Level 进阶数学
剑桥国际 A-Level 进阶数学(9231)建立在 9709 之上并以其为前提:进阶纯数学 1、2,进阶力学, 以及进阶概率与统计。它是与数学并修的,而不是替代数学;具体考哪几个单元取决于学校的报考组合。
进阶纯数学包含了大部分全新工具——矩阵与线性变换、极坐标与指数形式的复数、极坐标曲线、 双曲函数、微分方程、数学归纳法证明——这些是真正的新内容,而不是已学内容的加难版。进阶力学 与进阶统计则是对已有方法的延伸,因此难点更多在代数量而非思想。
这门课真正的失分点通常不是概念,而是时间:代数推演足够长,以至于第二行的一个小错会一路 保留到最后。请完整写出方法,在中途而非最后核对,并按考试时间练习完整题目,而不是孤立地 练技巧。本站笔记按考纲主题逐页编写,推导过程完整展示。
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1
进阶纯数学1
1.1
多项式方程的根
大纲
Candidates should be able to: Notes and examples • recall and use the relations between the roots and coefficients of polynomial equations e.g. to evaluate symmetric functions of the roots or to solve problems involving unknown coefficients in equations; restricted to equations of degree 2, 3 or 4 only. • use a substitution to obtain an equation whose roots are related in a simple way to those of the original equation Substitutions will not be given for the easiest cases, e.g. where the new roots are reciprocals or squares or a simple linear function of the old roots. 来源:剑桥国际大纲
对一个多项式方程,根(roots)与系数(coefficients)联系。对于有根 $\alpha, \beta$ 的 $ax^2 + bx + c = 0$:
$$\alpha + \beta = -\frac{b}{a}, \qquad \alpha\beta = \frac{c}{a}.$$对于有根 $\alpha, \beta, \gamma$ 的一个三次式 $ax^3 + bx^2 + cx + d = 0$:$$\sum\alpha = -\frac{b}{a}, \qquad \sum\alpha\beta = \frac{c}{a}, \qquad \alpha\beta\gamma = -\frac{d}{a}.$$像 $\sum\alpha$ 和 $\sum\alpha\beta$ 的和是根的对称函数(symmetric functions,若根被交换则不变)。要找到一个根以一种简单方式被改变的方程,用一个代换(substitution,例如令 $w = \alpha + 1$)。例题。 方程 $x^2 - 5x + 6 = 0$ 有根 $\alpha, \beta$。求以 $\alpha + 1, \beta + 1$ 为根的方程。
这里 $\alpha + \beta = 5$ 且 $\alpha\beta = 6$。新的和是 $(\alpha + 1) + (\beta + 1) = 7$,而新的积是 $(\alpha + 1)(\beta + 1) = \alpha\beta + \alpha + \beta + 1 = 6 + 5 + 1 = 12$。所以新方程是
$$x^2 - 7x + 12 = 0.$$探索Roots of a polynomial
y = ax³ + bx² + cx + d
The roots are where the curve meets the x-axis — their sum and product link to the coefficients.
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Further Pure Mathematics 进阶纯数学 jìn jiē chún shù xué roots 根 gēn coefficients 系数 xì shù substitution 代换 dài huàn symmetric functions 对称函数 duì chèn hán shù 1.2
有理函数与图像
大纲
Candidates should be able to: Notes and examples • sketch graphs of simple rational functions, including the determination of oblique asymptotes, in cases where the degree of the numerator and the denominator are at most 2 Including determination of the set of values taken by the function, e.g. by the use of a discriminant. Detailed plotting of curves will not be required, but sketches will generally be expected to show significant features, such as turning points, asymptotes and intersections with the axes. • understand and use relationships between the graphs of $y = f(x)$, $y^2 = f(x)$, $y = \frac{1}{f(x)}$, $y = |f(x)|$ and $y = f(|x|)$ Including use of such sketch graphs in the course of solving equations or inequalities. 来源:剑桥国际大纲
一个有理函数(rational function)是两个多项式的一个分数。当上面的次数恰好比下面的高一次时,图形有一条斜渐近线(oblique asymptote,曲线逼近的一条斜线);通过除出来找到它。你也应当能够把 $y = f(x)$ 的图形与 $y^2 = f(x)$、$y = \dfrac{1}{f(x)}$、$y = |f(x)|$ 和 $y = f(|x|)$ 的联系起来。用判别式(discriminant)求函数能取的值的集合,并定位它的驻点(turning points)。

远离原点时曲线贴近斜线 $y=x$;在 $x=0$ 附近它沿竖直渐近线跑走。 例题。 求 $y = \dfrac{x^2 + x + 1}{x + 1}$ 的斜渐近线。
除出这个分数:$\dfrac{x^2 + x + 1}{x + 1} = x + \dfrac{1}{x + 1}$。当 $x \to \pm\infty$ 时余数 $\dfrac{1}{x+1} \to 0$,所以曲线逼近直线 $y = x$——斜渐近线。
探索Rational functions
y = a/(x − b) + c
A rational function has asymptotes the curve approaches but never touches.
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 rational function 有理函数 yǒu lǐ hán shù oblique asymptote 斜渐近线 xié jiàn jìn xiàn discriminant 判别式 pàn bié shì turning points 驻点 zhù diǎn 1.3
级数求和
大纲
Candidates should be able to: Notes and examples • use the standard results for $\sum r$, $\sum r^2$, $\sum r^3$ to find related sums • use the method of differences to obtain the sum of a finite series Use of partial fractions to express a general term in a suitable form may be required. • recognise, by direct consideration of a sum to $n$ terms, when a series is convergent, and find the sum to infinity in such cases 来源:剑桥国际大纲
学习这些标准结果:
$$\sum_{r=1}^{n} r = \tfrac12 n(n+1), \qquad \sum_{r=1}^{n} r^2 = \tfrac16 n(n+1)(2n+1), \qquad \sum_{r=1}^{n} r^3 = \tfrac14 n^2(n+1)^2.$$差分法(method of differences)通过抵消中间项来求一个级数的和:若部分分式(partial fractions)把每一项写成 $f(r) - f(r+1)$,几乎所有的都抵消。从到 $n$ 项的和你能看出一个级数是否收敛(convergent),若是,求它的无穷和(sum to infinity)。例题。 求 $\displaystyle\sum_{r=1}^{n} (2r + 1)$。
$$\sum_{r=1}^{n}(2r + 1) = 2\sum_{r=1}^{n} r + \sum_{r=1}^{n} 1 = 2\cdot\tfrac12 n(n+1) + n = n(n+1) + n = n(n+2).$$探索Sequences and their sums
Step through the terms and the running total — the idea behind a series and its sum to n terms.
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 method of differences 差分法 chā fēn fǎ convergent 收敛 shōu liǎn sum to infinity 无穷和 wú qióng hé partial fractions 部分分式 bù fèn fēn shì 1.4
矩阵
大纲
Candidates should be able to: Notes and examples carry out operations of matrix addition, subtraction and multiplication, and recognise the terms zero matrix and identity (or unit) matrix Including non-square matrices. Matrices will have at most 3 rows and columns. recall the meaning of the terms singular and non-singular as applied to square matrices and, for $2 \times 2$ and $3 \times 3$ matrices, evaluate determinants and find inverses of non-singular matrices The notations $\det \mathbf{M}$ for the determinant of a matrix $\mathbf{M}$, and $\mathbf{I}$ for the identity matrix, will be used. understand and use the result, for non-singular matrices, $(\mathbf{AB})^{-1} = \mathbf{B}^{-1}\mathbf{A}^{-1}$ Extension to the product of more than two matrices may be required. understand the use of $2 \times 2$ matrices to represent certain geometric transformations in the $x$-$y$ plane, in particular: – understand the relationship between the transformations represented by $\mathbf{A}$ and $\mathbf{A}^{-1}$ – recognise that the matrix product $\mathbf{AB}$ represents the transformation that results from the transformation represented by $\mathbf{B}$ followed by the transformation represented by $\mathbf{A}$ – recall how the area scale factor of a transformation is related to the determinant of the corresponding matrix – find the matrix that represents a given transformation or sequence of transformations Understanding of the terms rotation, reflection, enlargement, stretch and shear for 2D transformations will be required. Other 2D transformations may be included, but no particular knowledge of them is expected. understand the meaning of invariant as applied to points and lines in the context of transformations represented by matrices, and solve simple problems involving invariant points and invariant lines. e.g. to locate the invariant points of the transformation represented by $\begin{pmatrix} 6 & 5 \\ 2 & 3 \end{pmatrix}$, or to find the invariant lines through the origin for $\begin{pmatrix} 4 & -1 \\ 2 & 1 \end{pmatrix}$, or to show that any line with gradient 1 is invariant for $\begin{pmatrix} 2 & 0 \\ 1 & 1 \end{pmatrix}$. 来源:剑桥国际大纲
一个矩阵移动平面 一个矩阵(matrix)是一个矩形的数块。矩阵加法把匹配位置的元素相加;你也能减和乘矩阵(乘法是行 $\times$ 列)。零矩阵(zero matrix)每个元素都是 $0$,而单位矩阵(identity matrix,或 unit matrix)$I$ 在乘法下使任何矩阵不变。
对一个 $2\times 2$ 矩阵 $A = \begin{pmatrix} a & b \\ c & d \end{pmatrix}$,行列式(determinant)是 $\det A = ad - bc$。若 $\det A \neq 0$ 矩阵是非奇异的(否则它是一个奇异矩阵(singular matrix)),而逆矩阵(inverse matrix)是
$$A^{-1} = \frac{1}{ad - bc}\begin{pmatrix} d & -b \\ -c & a \end{pmatrix}.$$对一个乘积,$(AB)^{-1} = B^{-1}A^{-1}$。一个 $2\times 2$ 矩阵能表示平面的一个几何变换(geometric transformation)——一个旋转(rotation)、反射(reflection)、放大(enlargement)、拉伸(stretch)或切变(shear):行列式给出面积比例因子,而一个乘积 $AB$ 意味着"做 $B$,然后 $A$"。不移动的点或直线叫不变点(invariant points)和不变直线(invariant lines)。
矩阵把单位正方形送到一个面积是行列式的平行四边形。 例题。 求 $A = \begin{pmatrix} 3 & 1 \\ 2 & 4 \end{pmatrix}$ 的逆。
$\det A = 3\times 4 - 1\times 2 = 10$,所以
$$A^{-1} = \frac{1}{10}\begin{pmatrix} 4 & -1 \\ -2 & 3 \end{pmatrix}.$$探索Matrices as transformations
Change the four entries and watch the unit square map to a new shape. The determinant is the area scale factor.
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 matrix 矩阵 jǔ zhèn zero matrix 零矩阵 líng jǔ zhèn identity matrix 单位矩阵 dān wèi jǔ zhèn determinant 行列式 háng liè shì singular matrix 奇异矩阵 qí yì jǔ zhèn inverse matrix 逆矩阵 nì jǔ zhèn geometric transformation 几何变换 jǐ hé biàn huàn invariant points 不变点 bù biàn diǎn invariant lines 不变直线 bù biàn zhí xiàn rotation 旋转 xuán zhuǎn reflection 反射 fǎn shè enlargement 放大 fàng dà stretch 拉伸 lā shēn shear 切变 qiē biàn 1.5
极坐标
大纲
Candidates should be able to: Notes and examples understand the relations between Cartesian and polar coordinates, and convert equations of curves from Cartesian to polar form and vice versa The convention $r \geqslant 0$ will be used. sketch simple polar curves, for $0 \leqslant \theta < 2\pi$ or $-\pi < \theta \leqslant \pi$ or a subset of either of these intervals Detailed plotting of curves will not be required, but sketches will generally be expected to show significant features, such as symmetry, coordinates of intersections with the initial line, the form of the curve at the pole and least/greatest values of $r$. recall the formula $\frac{1}{2} \int r^2 \mathrm{d}\theta$ for the area of a sector, and use this formula in simple cases. 来源:剑桥国际大纲
描摹一条极坐标曲线:心脏线 
一个旋转楼梯:螺旋用极坐标自然地描述。 极坐标(polar coordinates)用一个点从原点的距离 $r$ 和它的角 $\theta$ 给出它。它们通过以下与直角坐标(Cartesian coordinates)联系
$$x = r\cos\theta, \qquad y = r\sin\theta, \qquad r^2 = x^2 + y^2.$$
极坐标 $(r,\theta)$ 通过 $x=r\cos\theta$ 和 $y=r\sin\theta$ 转换成直角坐标。 你应当作简单的极坐标曲线(polar curves)的草图,并用以下求一个扇形的面积
$$\text{area} = \tfrac12\int r^2\,d\theta.$$
心脏线 $r=1+\cos\theta$,直接从 $r$ 作为 $\theta$ 的一个函数作图。 例题。 把极坐标方程 $r = 4\cos\theta$ 转换成直角坐标形式。
两边乘以 $r$:$r^2 = 4r\cos\theta$,所以 $x^2 + y^2 = 4x$。配方给出 $(x - 2)^2 + y^2 = 4$,一个以 $(2, 0)$ 为圆心、半径 $2$ 的圆。
探索Polar curves
Pick a curve and change a. In polar form a point is set by its distance r and angle θ — that draws roses, cardioids and spirals.
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 polar coordinates 极坐标 jí zuò biāo Cartesian coordinates 直角坐标 zhí jiǎo zuò biāo polar curves 极坐标曲线 jí zuò biāo qū xiàn 1.6
向量
大纲
Candidates should be able to: Notes and examples use the equation of a plane in any of the forms $ax + by + cz = d$ or $\mathbf{r.n} = p$ or $\mathbf{r} = \mathbf{a} + \lambda\mathbf{b} + \mu\mathbf{c}$ and convert equations of planes from one form to another as necessary in solving problems recall that the vector product $\mathbf{a} \times \mathbf{b}$ of two vectors can be expressed either as $|\mathbf{a}||\mathbf{b}|\sin\theta\hat{\mathbf{n}}$, where $\hat{\mathbf{n}}$ is a unit vector, or in component form as $(a_2b_3 - a_3b_2)\mathbf{i} + (a_3b_1 - a_1b_3)\mathbf{j} + (a_1b_2 - a_2b_1)\mathbf{k}$ use equations of lines and planes, together with scalar and vector products where appropriate, to solve problems concerning distances, angles and intersections, including: – determining whether a line lies in a plane, is parallel to a plane or intersects a plane, and finding the point of intersection of a line and a plane when it exists – finding the foot of the perpendicular from a point to a plane – finding the angle between a line and a plane, and the angle between two planes – finding an equation for the line of intersection of two planes – calculating the shortest distance between two skew lines – finding an equation for the common perpendicular to two skew lines. 来源:剑桥国际大纲

像风和水的力是向量——它们既有大小又有方向。 在三维中一个平面(plane)能被写成 $ax + by + cz = d$,或 $\mathbf{r}\cdot\mathbf{n} = p$,或 $\mathbf{r} = \mathbf{a} + \lambda\mathbf{b} + \mu\mathbf{c}$。除了数量积,还有两个向量(vectors)的向量积(vector product):
$$\mathbf{a}\times\mathbf{b} = |\mathbf{a}|\,|\mathbf{b}|\sin\theta\;\hat{\mathbf{n}},$$它给出一个与两者都成直角的向量。用数量积和向量积你能求距离、角,以及直线和平面相遇的地方——包括异面直线(skew lines)之间的最短距离。
$\mathbf{a}\times\mathbf{b}$ 垂直于两个向量;它的长度等于它们张成的平行四边形的面积。 例题。 对 $\mathbf{a} = \mathbf{i} + \mathbf{j}$ 和 $\mathbf{b} = \mathbf{j} + \mathbf{k}$ 求 $\mathbf{a}\times\mathbf{b}$。
$$\mathbf{a}\times\mathbf{b} = \begin{vmatrix} \mathbf{i} & \mathbf{j} & \mathbf{k} \\ 1 & 1 & 0 \\ 0 & 1 & 1 \end{vmatrix} = \mathbf{i}(1) - \mathbf{j}(1) + \mathbf{k}(1) = \mathbf{i} - \mathbf{j} + \mathbf{k}.$$探索Vectors
a · b = |a||b|cos θ
The dot product is zero exactly when two vectors are perpendicular.
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 plane 平面 píng miàn vector product 向量积 xiàng liàng jī vectors 向量 xiàng liàng skew lines 异面直线 yì miàn zhí xiàn 1.7
数学归纳法证明
大纲
Candidates should be able to: Notes and examples use the method of mathematical induction to establish a given result e.g. $\sum_{r=1}^{n} r^4 = \frac{1}{4}n^2(n+1)^2$, $u_n = \frac{1}{2}(1 + 3^{n-1})$ for the sequence given by $u_{n+1} = 3u_n - 1$ and $u_1 = 1$, $\begin{pmatrix} 4 & -1 \\ 6 & -1 \end{pmatrix}^n = \begin{pmatrix} 3 \times 2^n - 2 & 1 - 2^n \\ 3 \times 2^{n+1} - 6 & 3 - 2^{n+1} \end{pmatrix}$, $3^{2n} + 2 \times 5^n - 3$ is divisible by 8. recognise situations where conjecture based on a limited trial followed by inductive proof is a useful strategy, and carry this out in simple cases. e.g. find the $n$th derivative of $x e^x$, find $\sum_{r=1}^{n} r \times r!$. 来源:剑桥国际大纲
归纳法:多米诺骨牌证明 数学归纳法(mathematical induction)分两步对每个正整数 $n$ 证明一个结果:
- 基本情形:证明结果对 $n = 1$ 为真。
- 归纳步骤:假设它对 $n = k$ 为真,然后对 $n = k + 1$ 证明它。
若两步都有效,结果对所有 $n$ 为真。往往你先从几个情形做一个猜想(conjecture,一个合理的猜),然后用归纳证明(inductive proof)确认它。

归纳法像多米诺骨牌:基本情形推倒第一个,而归纳步骤使每一个撞倒下一个——所以结果对每个 n 成立 例题。 证明 $\displaystyle\sum_{r=1}^{n} r = \tfrac12 n(n+1)$。
基本情形 $n = 1$:左边是 $1$,右边是 $\tfrac12(1)(2) = 1$。为真。 归纳步骤:假设 $\displaystyle\sum_{r=1}^{k} r = \tfrac12 k(k+1)$。那么
$$\sum_{r=1}^{k+1} r = \tfrac12 k(k+1) + (k+1) = (k+1)\left(\tfrac{k}{2} + 1\right) = \tfrac12 (k+1)(k+2).$$这是 $n = k + 1$ 的公式,所以由归纳法它对所有 $n$ 成立。探索Proof by induction route
See induction as a first domino plus a rule that pushes every next case.
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 mathematical induction 数学归纳法 shù xué guī nà fǎ conjecture 猜想 cāi xiǎng inductive proof 归纳证明 guī nà zhèng míng 1.7
考试技巧
- 用根和系数之间的关系(和、成对的和、积)而不是解多项式。
- 对于归纳证明,布置基本情形、假设结果对 $n = k$、对 $n = k+1$ 证明它,并写一个清晰的结束陈述。
- 作有理函数图形的草图,带它们的渐近线和驻点;对一个求和用差分法。
- 对于矩阵,知道行列式、逆和不变直线,并从几何上解释每个变换。
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2
进阶纯数学2
这份讲义涵盖主题 2:进阶纯数学(Further Pure Mathematics)2。它增加双曲函数、特征值、新的微分和积分、棣莫弗定理,以及微分方程的方法。
2.1
双曲函数
大纲
Candidates should be able to: Notes and examples understand the definitions of the hyperbolic functions $\sinh x$, $\cosh x$, $\tanh x$, $\text{sech } x$, $\text{cosech } x$, $\text{coth } x$ in terms of the exponential function sketch the graphs of hyperbolic functions prove and use identities involving hyperbolic functions e.g. $\cosh^2 x - \sinh^2 x \equiv 1$, $\sinh 2x \equiv 2 \sinh x \cosh x$, and similar results corresponding to the standard trigonometric identities. understand and use the definitions of the inverse hyperbolic functions and derive and use the logarithmic forms 来源:剑桥国际大纲
cosh 和 sinh 从指数构建 
一根悬挂的电缆构成一条悬链线——双曲余弦的曲线。 双曲函数(hyperbolic functions)从指数函数构建:
$$\cosh x = \frac{e^x + e^{-x}}{2}, \qquad \sinh x = \frac{e^x - e^{-x}}{2}, \qquad \tanh x = \frac{\sinh x}{\cosh x}.$$
$\cosh$ 是 $e^x$ 和 $e^{-x}$ 的平均;$\sinh$ 是它们差的一半。 它们遵守很像三角函数的恒等式,主要的一个是 $\cosh^2 x - \sinh^2 x = 1$。三个倒数补全这一组:$\operatorname{sech} x = \dfrac{1}{\cosh x}$、$\operatorname{cosech} x = \dfrac{1}{\sinh x}$,和 $\coth x = \dfrac{1}{\tanh x} = \dfrac{\cosh x}{\sinh x}$——也都由 $e^x$ 构成,值得在积分和评分方案里认出来。反双曲函数(inverse hyperbolic functions)有一个对数形式(logarithmic form),例如 $\sinh^{-1} x = \ln\!\left(x + \sqrt{x^2 + 1}\right)$。
例题。 证明 $\cosh^2 x - \sinh^2 x = 1$。
$$\cosh^2 x - \sinh^2 x = \frac{(e^x + e^{-x})^2 - (e^x - e^{-x})^2}{4} = \frac{(e^{2x} + 2 + e^{-2x}) - (e^{2x} - 2 + e^{-2x})}{4} = \frac{4}{4} = 1.$$探索Hyperbolic functions
y = a cosh(x)
cosh is the catenary (a hanging chain) — even, with its minimum at (0, a).
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Further Pure Mathematics 进阶纯数学 jìn jiē chún shù xué hyperbolic functions 双曲函数 shuāng qū hán shù inverse hyperbolic functions 反双曲函数 fǎn shuāng qū hán shù logarithmic form 对数形式 duì shù xíng shì 2.2
矩阵
大纲
Candidates should be able to: Notes and examples formulate a problem involving the solution of 3 linear simultaneous equations in 3 unknowns as a problem involving the solution of a matrix equation, or vice versa understand the cases that may arise concerning the consistency or inconsistency of 3 linear simultaneous equations, relate them to the singularity or otherwise of the corresponding matrix, solve consistent systems, and interpret geometrically in terms of lines and planes e.g. three planes meeting in a common point, or in a common line, or having no common points. understand the terms 'characteristic equation', 'eigenvalue' and 'eigenvector', as applied to square matrices Including use of the definition $\mathbf{Ae} = \lambda \mathbf{e}$ to prove simple properties, e.g. that $\lambda^n$ is an eigenvalue of $\mathbf{A}^n$. find eigenvalues and eigenvectors of $2 \times 2$ and $3 \times 3$ matrices Restricted to cases where the eigenvalues are real and distinct. express a square matrix in the form $\mathbf{QDQ}^{-1}$, where $\mathbf{D}$ is a diagonal matrix of eigenvalues and $\mathbf{Q}$ is a matrix whose columns are eigenvectors, and use this expression e.g. in calculating powers of $2 \times 2$ or $3 \times 3$ matrices. use the fact that a square matrix satisfies its own characteristic equation. e.g. in finding successive powers of a matrix or finding an inverse matrix; restricted to $2 \times 2$ or $3 \times 3$ matrices only. 来源:剑桥国际大纲
一个矩阵移动平面 你能把三个未知数的三个线性方程写成一个单一的矩阵方程(matrix equation)$A\mathbf{x} = \mathbf{b}$。若 $A$ 非奇异有一个解;若 $A$ 奇异,这些方程要么不相容(无解)要么有无穷多个。
对一个方阵 $A$,特征方程(characteristic equation)是 $\det(A - \lambda I) = 0$。它的解是特征值(eigenvalues)$\lambda$,而对每个,满足 $A\mathbf{v} = \lambda\mathbf{v}$ 的向量 $\mathbf{v}$ 是一个特征向量(eigenvector)。你随即能写 $A = QDQ^{-1}$,其中 $D$ 是一个特征值的对角矩阵(diagonal matrix)而 $Q$ 的列是特征向量。

把一个特征向量乘以 $A$ 只拉伸它;一个一般向量被转到一个新方向。 例题。 求 $A = \begin{pmatrix} 2 & 1 \\ 1 & 2 \end{pmatrix}$ 的特征值。
特征方程是
$$\det\begin{pmatrix} 2 - \lambda & 1 \\ 1 & 2 - \lambda \end{pmatrix} = (2 - \lambda)^2 - 1 = 0 \;\Rightarrow\; 2 - \lambda = \pm 1.$$所以 $\lambda = 1$ 或 $\lambda = 3$。($\lambda = 3$ 的特征向量是 $\begin{pmatrix} 1 \\ 1 \end{pmatrix}$,而 $\lambda = 1$ 的是 $\begin{pmatrix} 1 \\ -1 \end{pmatrix}$。)探索Transformations and the determinant
Change the matrix to rotate, stretch or shear the unit square; the determinant shows how area changes.
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 matrix equation 矩阵方程 jǔ zhèn fāng chéng characteristic equation 特征方程 tè zhēng fāng chéng eigenvalues 特征值 tè zhēng zhí eigenvector 特征向量 tè zhēng xiàng liàng diagonal matrix 对角矩阵 duì jiǎo jǔ zhèn 2.3
微分
大纲
Candidates should be able to: Notes and examples • differentiate hyperbolic functions and differentiate $\sin^{-1}x$, $\cos^{-1}x$, $\sinh^{-1}x$, $\cosh^{-1}x$ and $\tanh^{-1}x$ • obtain an expression for $\frac{\text{d}^2y}{\text{d}x^2}$ in cases where the relation between $x$ and $y$ is defined implicitly or parametrically • derive and use the first few terms of a Maclaurin's series for a function. Derivation of a general term is not included, but successive 'implicit' differentiation steps may be required, e.g. for $y = \tan x$ following an initial differentiation rearranged as $y' = 1 + y^2$. 来源:剑桥国际大纲
你现在能微分双曲函数和反函数 $\sin^{-1}x$、$\tan^{-1}x$、$\sinh^{-1}x$ 等等。你也能对隐式或参数给出的曲线求 $\dfrac{d^2y}{dx^2}$。
一个麦克劳林级数(Maclaurin's series)把一个函数写成一个幂级数:
$$f(x) = f(0) + f'(0)\,x + \frac{f''(0)}{2!}\,x^2 + \frac{f'''(0)}{3!}\,x^3 + \cdots$$例如 $e^x = 1 + x + \dfrac{x^2}{2!} + \dfrac{x^3}{3!} + \cdots$
加更多的项使多项式在 $x=0$ 周围一段更宽的范围上匹配 $e^x$。 例题。 求 $f(x) = \ln(1+x)$ 到 $x^3$ 项的麦克劳林级数。
$f(0) = 0$;$f'(x) = \dfrac{1}{1+x}$ 所以 $f'(0) = 1$;$f''(x) = \dfrac{-1}{(1+x)^2}$ 所以 $f''(0) = -1$;$f'''(x) = \dfrac{2}{(1+x)^3}$ 所以 $f'''(0) = 2$。代入级数:
$$\ln(1+x) = x - \frac{x^2}{2} + \frac{x^3}{3} - \cdots$$探索The gradient at a point
gradient = dy/dx
The derivative is the slope of the tangent, however exotic the function.
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Maclaurin's series 麦克劳林级数 mài kè láo lín jí shù 2.4
积分
大纲
Candidates should be able to: Notes and examples • integrate hyperbolic functions and recognise integrals of functions of the form $\frac{1}{\sqrt{a^2 - x^2}}$, $\frac{1}{\sqrt{x^2 + a^2}}$ and $\frac{1}{\sqrt{x^2 - a^2}}$, and integrate associated functions using trigonometric substitutions or hyperbolic substitutions as appropriate Including use of completing the square where necessary, e.g. to integrate $\frac{1}{\sqrt{x^2 + x}}$. • derive and use reduction formulae for the evaluation of definite integrals e.g. $\int_0^{\frac{1}{2}\pi} \sin^n x \text{ d}x$, $\int_0^1 \text{e}^{-x}(1-x)^n \text{ d}x$. In harder cases hints may be given, e.g. $\int_0^{\frac{1}{4}\pi} \sec^n x \text{ d}x$ by considering $\frac{\text{d}}{\text{d}x}(\tan x \sec^n x)$. • understand how the area under a curve may be approximated by areas of rectangles, and use rectangles to estimate or set bounds for the area under a curve or to derive inequalities or limits concerning sums Questions may involve either rectangles of unit width or rectangles whose width can tend to zero, e.g. $1 + \ln n > \sum_{r=1}^n \frac{1}{r} > \ln(n+1)$, $\sum_{r=1}^n \frac{1}{n}\left(1 + \frac{r}{n}\right)^{-1} \approx \int_0^1 (1+x)^{-1} \text{ d}x$. continued • use integration to find – arc lengths for curves with equations in Cartesian coordinates, including the use of a parameter, or in polar coordinates – surface areas of revolution about one of the axes for curves with equations in Cartesian coordinates, including the use of a parameter. Any questions involving integration may require techniques from Cambridge International A Level Mathematics (9709) applied to more difficult cases, e.g. integration by parts for $\int e^x \sin x \mathrm{d}x$, or use of the substitution $t = \tan \frac{1}{2}x$. Surface areas of revolution for curves with equations in polar coordinates will not be required. 来源:剑桥国际大纲
学习这些标准积分:
$$\int \frac{1}{a^2 + x^2}\,dx = \frac{1}{a}\tan^{-1}\frac{x}{a} + C, \qquad \int \frac{1}{\sqrt{a^2 - x^2}}\,dx = \sin^{-1}\frac{x}{a} + C.$$一个三角替换、一个双曲替换,或分母中的配方法(completing the square)处理相关的形式。一个递推公式(reduction formula)把一个积分 $I_n$ 与 $I_{n-1}$ 联系起来,所以你能一步步往下算。积分也给出一条曲线的弧长(arc length),以及当一条曲线绕一个轴旋转时的旋转曲面面积(surface area of revolution)。例题。 求 $\displaystyle\int \frac{1}{\sqrt{4 - x^2}}\,dx$。
这里 $a^2 = 4$,所以 $a = 2$ 且
$$\int \frac{1}{\sqrt{4 - x^2}}\,dx = \sin^{-1}\frac{x}{2} + C.$$用积分界定一个和。 在一条递减曲线(如 $y=\frac1x$)下方或上方画单位宽的矩形。每个高 $\frac1r$ 的矩形被夹在两个积分条之间,所以求和给出
$$\ln(n+1) < \sum_{r=1}^{n}\frac1r < 1 + \ln n.$$把矩形宽度缩到 $\frac1n\to 0$,这样一个和就变成一个在极限里等于积分的黎曼和(Riemann sum),例如 $\displaystyle\lim_{n\to\infty}\frac1n\sum_{r=1}^{n}f\!\left(\frac{r}{n}\right)=\int_0^1 f(x)\,dx$。探索The area under the curve
area = ∫ f(x) dx
Every integral measures the area under the curve — drag the limits.
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 completing the square 配方法 pèi fāng fǎ reduction formula 递推公式 dì tuī gōng shì arc length 弧长 hú zhǎng surface area of revolution 旋转曲面面积 xuán zhuǎn qū miàn miàn jī Riemann sum 黎曼和 lí màn hé 2.5
复数
大纲
Candidates should be able to: Notes and examples • understand de Moivre’s theorem, for a positive or negative integer exponent, in terms of the geometrical effect of multiplication and division of complex numbers • prove de Moivre’s theorem for a positive integer exponent e.g. by induction. • use de Moivre’s theorem for a positive or negative rational exponent e.g. expressing $\cos 5\theta$ in terms of $\cos \theta$ or $\tan 5\theta$ in terms of $\tan \theta$. – to express trigonometrical ratios of multiple angles in terms of powers of trigonometrical ratios of the fundamental angle e.g. expressing $\sin^6 \theta$ in terms of $\cos 2\theta$, $\cos 4\theta$ and $\cos 6\theta$. – to express powers of $\sin \theta$ and $\cos \theta$ in terms of multiple angles – in the summation of series e.g. using the '$C + \mathrm{i}S$' method to sum series such as $\sum_{r=1}^{n} \binom{n}{r} \sin r\theta$. – in finding and using the $n$th roots of unity. 来源:剑桥国际大纲
单位的 n 次方根构成一个多边形 复数相乘:长度相乘,角相加 乘以 i 是一个旋转 
像罗马花椰菜的自相似模式来自在复平面中迭代函数。 极坐标形式的一个复数(complex number)是 $z = r(\cos\theta + i\sin\theta)$。棣莫弗定理(De Moivre's theorem)说对任何整数 $n$,
$$(\cos\theta + i\sin\theta)^n = \cos n\theta + i\sin n\theta.$$它被用来把 $\cos n\theta$ 和 $\sin n\theta$ 展开成幂、求级数的和,并求 $n$ 个单位根(roots of unity,$z^n = 1$ 的解,在单位圆周围等间距)。
$z^5=1$ 的五个解在单位圆上等间距地相隔 $72^\circ$。 例题。 用棣莫弗定理把 $\cos 3\theta$ 用 $\cos\theta$ 表示。
取 $(\cos\theta + i\sin\theta)^3 = \cos 3\theta + i\sin 3\theta$ 的实部:
$$\cos 3\theta = \cos^3\theta - 3\cos\theta\sin^2\theta = \cos^3\theta - 3\cos\theta(1 - \cos^2\theta) = 4\cos^3\theta - 3\cos\theta.$$探索The Argand diagram
Drag the point to explore modulus and argument — the language of complex numbers in polar (modulus–argument) form.
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 complex number 复数 fù shù De Moivre's theorem 棣莫弗定理 dì mò fú dìng lǐ roots of unity 单位根 dān wèi gēn 2.6
微分方程
大纲
Candidates should be able to: Notes and examples • find an integrating factor for a first order linear differential equation, and use an integrating factor to find the general solution e.g. $\frac{\mathrm{d}y}{\mathrm{d}x} - 2y = x^2$, $x\frac{\mathrm{d}y}{\mathrm{d}x} - y = x^4$, $\frac{\mathrm{d}y}{\mathrm{d}x} + y\coth x = \cosh x$. • recall the meaning of the terms 'complementary function' and 'particular integral' in the context of linear differential equations, and recall that the general solution is the sum of the complementary function and a particular integral find the complementary function for a first or second order linear differential equation with constant coefficients For second order equations, including the cases where the auxiliary equation has distinct real roots, a repeated real root or conjugate complex roots. recall the form of, and find, a particular integral for a first or second order linear differential equation in the cases where a polynomial or $ae^{bx}$ or $a\cos px + b\sin px$ is a suitable form, and in other simple cases find the appropriate coefficient(s) given a suitable form of particular integral e.g. evaluate $k$ given that $kx \cos 2x$ is a particular integral of $$\frac{\text{d}^2y}{\text{d}x^2} + 4y = \sin 2x$$.use a given substitution to reduce a differential equation to a first or second order linear equation with constant coefficients or to a first order equation with separable variables e.g. the substitution $x = e^t$ to reduce to linear form a differential equation with terms of the form $$ax^2\frac{\text{d}^2y}{\text{d}x^2} + bx\frac{\text{d}y}{\text{d}x} + cy$$, or the substitution $y = ux$ to reduce$$\frac{\text{d}y}{\text{d}x} = \frac{x+y}{x-y}$$to separable form.use initial conditions to find a particular solution to a differential equation, and interpret a solution in terms of a problem modelled by a differential equation. 来源:剑桥国际大纲
对一个一阶线性方程 $\dfrac{dy}{dx} + P(x)\,y = Q(x)$,乘以积分因子(integrating factor)$\mu = e^{\int P\,dx}$。左边随即变成 $\dfrac{d}{dx}(\mu y)$,所以你能直接积分。
对一个常系数线性方程,通解(general solution)是两部分的和:余函数(complementary function,右边设为 $0$ 的方程的解,从辅助方程求得)和一个特积分(particular integral,完整方程的任何一个解)。初始条件随即确定这些常数以给出特解(particular solution);更简单的带可分离变量(separable variables)的方程直接积分。

一条解曲线跟随斜率场,处处与小段相切。 例题。 解 $\dfrac{dy}{dx} + 2y = e^x$。
积分因子是 $\mu = e^{\int 2\,dx} = e^{2x}$。乘过给出 $\dfrac{d}{dx}\!\left(y\,e^{2x}\right) = e^{3x}$,所以
$$y\,e^{2x} = \tfrac13 e^{3x} + C \;\Rightarrow\; y = \tfrac13 e^x + C e^{-2x}.$$二阶常系数。 对 $\dfrac{d^2y}{dx^2}+b\dfrac{dy}{dx}+cy=f(x)$,解辅助方程(auxiliary equation)$m^2+bm+c=0$。余函数取决于它的根:
- 两个不同的实根 $m_1,m_2$:$y=Ae^{m_1x}+Be^{m_2x}$;
- 一个重根 $m$:$y=(A+Bx)e^{mx}$;
- 复根 $p\pm qi$:$y=e^{px}(A\cos qx+B\sin qx)$。
然后加一个特积分,试一个匹配 $f(x)$ 的形式(一个多项式、$ae^{bx}$,或 $a\cos px+b\sin px$);若那个试探已经出现在余函数里,就把它乘以 $x$。
例题。 解 $\dfrac{d^2y}{dx^2}-4\dfrac{dy}{dx}+4y=0$。辅助方程 $m^2-4m+4=(m-2)^2=0$ 有一个重根 $m=2$,所以 $y=(A+Bx)e^{2x}$。
探索Differential equations
dy/dx = a y
The equation sets the slope everywhere; the solution follows those slopes.
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 integrating factor 积分因子 jī fēn yīn zi general solution 通解 tōng jiě complementary function 余函数 yú hán shù particular integral 特积分 tè jī fēn particular solution 特解 tè jiě separable variables 可分离变量 kě fēn lí biàn liàng auxiliary equation 辅助方程 fǔ zhù fāng chéng 2.6
考试技巧
- 学习双曲恒等式和导数,并在积分中用反双曲函数。
- 把一个线性微分方程解成余函数 $+$ 特积分,然后应用边界条件。
- 用棣莫弗定理求复数的幂和根,并推导三角恒等式。
- 通过一个陈述的替换把一个积分化到一个标准形式。
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3
进阶力学
这份讲义涵盖主题 3:进阶力学(Further Mechanics)。它把力学扩展到抛射体、刚体、圆周运动、弹性绳、变力和碰撞。取 $g = 10\ \text{m s}^{-2}$。
3.1
抛体运动
大纲
Candidates should be able to: Notes and examples • model the motion of a projectile as a particle moving with constant acceleration and understand any limitations of the model Vector methods are not required • use horizontal and vertical equations of motion to solve problems on the motion of projectiles, including finding the magnitude and direction of the velocity at a given time or position, the range on a horizontal plane and the greatest height reached • derive and use the Cartesian equation of the trajectory of a projectile, including problems in which the initial speed and/or angle of projection may be unknown. Knowledge of the 'bounding parabola' for accessible points is not included. 来源:剑桥国际大纲
落下对抛出:一起下落 
水柱跟随抛物线路径——重力下经典的抛射运动。 一个抛射体(projectile)在重力下自由运动,所以它有向下的匀加速(constant acceleration)$g$ 且没有水平加速度。把水平和竖直运动分开处理。若它以速率 $u$、角 $\alpha$ 被发射:
$$\text{horizontal: } x = u\cos\alpha\,\cdot t, \qquad \text{vertical: } y = u\sin\alpha\,\cdot t - \tfrac12 g t^2.$$消去 $t$ 给出轨迹(trajectory,路径)的直角坐标方程(Cartesian equation),它是一条抛物线。对于一个固定的发射速率,所有的轨迹位于一条包络抛物线(bounding parabola,可达点的包络)之下。在水平地面上的射程是 $\dfrac{u^2\sin 2\alpha}{g}$,而最大高度是 $\dfrac{u^2\sin^2\alpha}{2g}$。
路径是一条抛物线;发射速率 $u$ 拆成一个稳定的水平部分和一个被重力减慢的竖直部分。 例题。 一个球以 $u = 20\ \text{m s}^{-1}$、与水平成 $30^\circ$ 被抛出。求射程和最大高度。
$$\text{range} = \frac{20^2\sin 60^\circ}{10} = 40\times 0.866 = 34.6\ \text{m}, \qquad \text{height} = \frac{20^2\sin^2 30^\circ}{2\times 10} = \frac{400\times 0.25}{20} = 5\ \text{m}.$$探索Launch a projectile
Fire the ball, then change the angle and speed. The horizontal motion is steady while gravity pulls it down — together they trace a parabola. Find the angle for the longest range, and try the Moon.
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Further Mechanics 进阶力学 jìn jiē lì xué projectile 抛射体 pāo shè tǐ constant acceleration 匀加速 yún jiā sù Cartesian equation 直角坐标方程 zhí jiǎo zuò biāo fāng chéng trajectory 轨迹 guǐ jì bounding parabola 包络抛物线 bāo luò pāo wù xiàn 3.2
刚体的平衡
大纲
Candidates should be able to: Notes and examples • calculate the moment of a force about a point For questions involving coplanar forces only; understanding of the vector nature of moments is not required. • use the result that the effect of gravity on a rigid body is equivalent to a single force acting at the centre of mass of the body, and identify the position of the centre of mass of a uniform body using considerations of symmetry • use given information about the position of the centre of mass of a triangular lamina and other simple shapes Proofs of results given in the MF19 List of formulae are not required. • determine the position of the centre of mass of a composite body by considering an equivalent system of particles Simple cases only, e.g. a uniform L-shaped lamina, or a uniform cone joined at its base to a uniform hemisphere of the same radius. • use the principle that if a rigid body is in equilibrium under the action of coplanar forces then the vector sum of the forces is zero and the sum of the moments of the forces about any point is zero, and the converse of this • solve problems involving the equilibrium of a single rigid body under the action of coplanar forces, including those involving toppling or sliding. 来源:剑桥国际大纲
一个力关于一个点的力矩(moment)是力 $\times$ 垂直距离;它测量转动效果。一个物体的重力作用在它的质心(centre of mass),对一个均匀的平面形状(一个薄片(lamina))你能用对称(symmetry)找到它,或通过把一个复合物体当作一组质点找到它。
一个刚体在共面力(coplanar forces)下,当两个条件都成立时处于平衡(equilibrium):力的向量和为零,而关于任何点的力矩之和为零。一个物体也可能在翻倒(toppling)或滑动(sliding)的边缘。

关于支点 $A$ 取力矩平衡转动效果:$F\times4 = 100\times2$。 例题。 一根长 $4\ \text{m}$、重 $100\ \text{N}$ 的均匀梁 $AB$ 放在 $A$ 处的一个支点上。$B$ 处一个竖直力 $F$ 使它保持水平。求 $F$。
关于 $A$ 取力矩(重力作用在中心,距 $A$ $2\ \text{m}$):
$$F\times 4 = 100\times 2 \;\Rightarrow\; F = 50\ \text{N}.$$探索Equilibrium of forces
resultant = 0
A body is in equilibrium when the forces add tip-to-tail back to zero.
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 moment 力矩 lì jǔ centre of mass 质心 zhì xīn symmetry 对称 duì chèn equilibrium 平衡 píng héng toppling 翻倒 fān dǎo sliding 滑动 huá dòng lamina 薄片 báo piàn coplanar forces 共面力 gòng miàn lì 3.3
圆周运动
大纲
Candidates should be able to: Notes and examples understand the concept of angular speed for a particle moving in a circle, and use the relation $v = r\omega$ understand that the acceleration of a particle moving in a circle with constant speed is directed towards the centre of the circle, and use the formulae $r\omega^2$ and $\frac{v^2}{r}$. Proof of the acceleration formulae is not required. solve problems which can be modelled by the motion of a particle moving in a horizontal circle with constant speed solve problems which can be modelled by the motion of a particle in a vertical circle without loss of energy. Including finding a normal contact force or the tension in a string, locating points at which these are zero, and conditions for complete circular motion. 来源:剑桥国际大纲
对一个在半径 $r$ 的圆中运动的质点,角速度(angular speed)$\omega$ 通过 $v = r\omega$ 与速率联系。加速度指向中心——向心加速度(centripetal acceleration)——大小为
$$a = r\omega^2 = \frac{v^2}{r}.$$
速度沿切线指;加速度向内指向中心。 
链球运动员就是这一页的活动图解。绷紧的钢丝把球朝中心拉——那个向内的拉力就是向心力——而球的速度指向切线方向。一松手,再没有向内的力,球就沿着那条切线笔直飞出去 在一个水平圆(horizontal circle)中速率是恒定的——如在一个圆锥摆(conical pendulum,一个质量在一根绳上摆动)中。在一个竖直圆(vertical circle)中用能量守恒,因为速率随高度改变;法向接触力(normal contact force)或绳张力提供向心力。
例题。 一个质点在一个半径 $2\ \text{m}$ 的水平圆中以角速度 $3\ \text{rad s}^{-1}$ 运动。求它的速率和加速度。
$$v = r\omega = 2\times 3 = 6\ \text{m s}^{-1}, \qquad a = r\omega^2 = 2\times 3^2 = 18\ \text{m s}^{-2}.$$探索Angle in radians
Circular motion is measured in radians: drag the angle θ and radius r to see the arc swept — angular speed ω turns this into v = rω.
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 angular speed 角速度 jiǎo sù dù centripetal acceleration 向心加速度 xiàng xīn jiā sù dù horizontal circle 水平圆 shuǐ píng yuán vertical circle 竖直圆 shù zhí yuán conical pendulum 圆锥摆 yuán zhuī bǎi normal contact force 法向接触力 fǎ xiàng jiē chù lì 3.4
胡克定律
大纲
Candidates should be able to: Notes and examples use Hooke’s law as a model relating the force in an elastic string or spring to the extension or compression, and understand the term modulus of elasticity use the formula for the elastic potential energy stored in a string or spring Proof of the formula is not required. solve problems involving forces due to elastic strings or springs, including those where considerations of work and energy are needed. e.g. a particle moving horizontally or vertically or on an inclined plane while attached to one or more strings or springs, or a particle attached to an elastic string acting as a 'conical pendulum'. 来源:剑桥国际大纲
胡克定律(Hooke's law)说一根弹性绳或弹簧中的张力与它的伸长 $x$ 成正比:
$$T = \frac{\lambda x}{L},$$其中 $L$ 是自然长度而 $\lambda$ 是弹性模量(modulus of elasticity)。拉伸储存弹性势能(elastic potential energy):$$E = \frac{\lambda x^2}{2L}.$$
张力与伸长成比例地上升;着色的三角形是储存的弹性能量。 例题。 一根自然长度 $2\ \text{m}$、模量 $50\ \text{N}$ 的弹性绳被拉伸 $0.5\ \text{m}$。求张力和储存的能量。
$$T = \frac{50\times 0.5}{2} = 12.5\ \text{N}, \qquad E = \frac{50\times 0.5^2}{2\times 2} = 3.125\ \text{J}.$$探索Hooke's law
F = k·x
Force is proportional to extension — the gradient is the stiffness k.
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Hooke's law 胡克定律 hú kè dìng lǜ modulus of elasticity 弹性模量 tán xìng mó liàng elastic potential energy 弹性势能 tán xìng shì néng 3.5
变力作用下的直线运动
大纲
Candidates should be able to: Notes and examples solve problems which can be modelled as the linear motion of a particle under the action of a variable force, by setting up and solving an appropriate differential equation. Including use of $v \frac{\mathrm{d}v}{\mathrm{d}x}$ for acceleration, where appropriate. Calculus required is restricted to content from Pure Mathematics 3 in Cambridge International A Level Mathematics (9709). Only differential equations in which the variables are separable are included. 来源:剑桥国际大纲
当力取决于位置 $x$ 时,用形式 $a = v\dfrac{dv}{dx}$ 的加速度,它把牛顿定律变成一个联系 $v$ 和 $x$ 的微分方程(differential equation)。

当力取决于时间时用 dv/dt,当它取决于位置时用 v dv/dx 例题。 一个质量 $8\ \text{kg}$ 的质点在一个大小为 $(x^3 + 4x)\ \text{N}$、沿运动方向作用的变力(variable force)下沿一条线运动。当 $x = 0$ 时,$v = 1$。求 $v$ 用 $x$ 表示。
牛顿定律给出 $8v\dfrac{dv}{dx} = x^3 + 4x$。分离并积分:
$$\int 8v\,dv = \int (x^3 + 4x)\,dx \;\Rightarrow\; 4v^2 = \tfrac14 x^4 + 2x^2 + C.$$在 $x = 0$ 处,$v = 1$ 给出 $C = 4$,所以 $4v^2 = \tfrac14 x^4 + 2x^2 + 4 = 4\left(\tfrac{x^2}{4} + 1\right)^2$。因此 $v = \tfrac14 x^2 + 1$。
一个依赖位置的力变成一个 v 和 x 的微分方程 探索Work from a variable force
W = ∫ F dx
When the force changes, the work done is the area under the force–distance graph.
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 differential equation 微分方程 wēi fēn fāng chéng variable force 变力 biàn lì conservation of momentum 动量守恒 dòng liàng shǒu héng 3.6
动量
大纲
Candidates should be able to: Notes and examples recall Newton’s experimental law and the definition of the coefficient of restitution, the property $0 \leqslant e \leqslant 1$, and the meaning of the terms ‘perfectly elastic’ ($e = 1$) and ‘inelastic’ ($e = 0$) use conservation of linear momentum and/or Newton’s experimental law to solve problems that may be modelled as the direct or oblique impact of two smooth spheres, or the direct or oblique impact of a smooth sphere with a fixed surface. 来源:剑桥国际大纲

一个牛顿摆演示碰撞中的动量守恒。 在一次碰撞中,总动量守恒——动量守恒(conservation of linear momentum)。弹性由牛顿实验定律(Newton's experimental law)测量,它定义恢复系数(coefficient of restitution)$e$:
$$e = \frac{\text{speed of separation}}{\text{speed of approach}}, \qquad 0 \leqslant e \leqslant 1.$$这里 $e = 1$ 是完全弹性的(没有能量损失)而 $e = 0$ 是非弹性的(物体粘在一起)。在一次斜碰撞(oblique impact)中,把速度沿和垂直于碰撞线分解,沿它应用恢复。
恢复系数 $e$ 把物体分开多快与它们接近多快比较。 例题。 一个质量 $2\ \text{kg}$、以 $5\ \text{m s}^{-1}$ 运动的球 $A$ 撞上一个静止的质量 $3\ \text{kg}$ 的球 $B$,$e = 0.5$。求之后的速率。
动量:$2(5) = 2v_A + 3v_B$,所以 $2v_A + 3v_B = 10$。恢复:$v_B - v_A = 0.5(5) = 2.5$。一起求解给出 $v_A = 0.5\ \text{m s}^{-1}$ 和 $v_B = 3.0\ \text{m s}^{-1}$。
探索A collision
Set each mass and speed, then collide them. Total momentum is conserved — see how the velocities come out.
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 Newton's experimental law 牛顿实验定律 niú dùn shí yàn dìng lǜ coefficient of restitution 恢复系数 huī fù xì shù oblique impact 斜碰撞 xié pèng zhuàng 3.6
考试技巧
- 对于抛射体,分解成水平(恒速)和竖直($a = g$)运动,由同一个时间联系。
- 对于一个平衡的刚体,关于一个移除一个未知力的点取力矩。
- 对于圆周运动,用 $F = mv^2/r = m\omega^2 r$ 朝中心;在一个竖直圆中检查顶部的最小速率。
- 用一个变力,用 $a = v\,\frac{dv}{dx}$ 并积分;弹性 PE $= \frac{\lambda x^2}{2L}$。
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4
进阶概率与统计
这份讲义涵盖主题 4:进阶概率统计(Further Probability & Statistics)。它增加连续分布、小样本推断、卡方和非参数检验,以及概率母函数。
4.1
连续随机变量
大纲
Candidates should be able to: Notes and examples use a probability density function which may be defined piecewise use the general result $\text{E}(g(X)) = \int f(x)g(x) \, \mathrm{d}x$ where $f(x)$ is the probability density function of the continuous random variable $X$ and $g(X)$ is a function of $X$ understand and use the relationship between the probability density function (PDF) and the cumulative distribution function (CDF), and use either to evaluate probabilities or percentiles use cumulative distribution functions (CDFs) of related variables in simple cases. e.g. given the CDF of a variable $X$, find the CDF of a related variable $Y$, and hence its PDF, e.g. where $Y = X^3$. 来源:剑桥国际大纲
一个连续变量 $X$ 由一个概率密度函数(probability density function)$f(x)$ 描述,它可能被分段定义。一个范围上的概率是 $f$ 下的面积,而 $X$ 的任何函数的平均值是
$$E(g(X)) = \int g(x)\,f(x)\,dx.$$
中位数坐落在它左边 $f(x)$ 下的面积恰好是 $0.5$ 的地方。 累积分布函数(cumulative distribution function)$F(x) = P(X \leqslant x)$ 是累加的总数:$F(x) = \displaystyle\int_{-\infty}^{x} f(t)\,dt$,而 $f(x) = F'(x)$。用 $F$ 求概率和百分位数(percentiles,例如中位数(median)解 $F(x) = 0.5$)。

累积图 $F(x)$ 从 $0$ 上升到 $1$;高度 $0.5$ 在中位数处到达。 例题。 一个变量对 $0 \leqslant x \leqslant 2$ 有 $f(x) = \tfrac12 x$。求中位数。
累积分布函数是 $F(x) = \displaystyle\int_0^x \tfrac12 t\,dt = \tfrac14 x^2$。令 $F(m) = 0.5$:
$$\tfrac14 m^2 = 0.5 \;\Rightarrow\; m^2 = 2 \;\Rightarrow\; m = \sqrt{2} = 1.41.$$一个相关变量的分布。 若 $Y=g(X)$,通过它的累积函数求 $Y$ 的分布。对 $Y=X^2$:$F_Y(y)=P(X^2\leqslant y)=P(-\sqrt y\leqslant X\leqslant\sqrt y)=F_X(\sqrt y)-F_X(-\sqrt y)$,然后微分得 $f_Y=F_Y'$。当 $g$ 单调递增时有一个捷径,$F_Y(y)=F_X\big(g^{-1}(y)\big)$。
例题。 用 $f_X(x)=\tfrac12 x$ 在 $[0,2]$ 上(所以 $F_X(x)=\tfrac14 x^2$),令 $Y=X^2$。对 $0\leqslant y\leqslant 4$,$F_Y(y)=F_X(\sqrt y)=\tfrac14 y$,所以 $f_Y(y)=F_Y'(y)=\tfrac14$——就是说 $Y$ 在 $[0,4]$ 上均匀分布。
探索Continuous random variables
P(a < X < b) = ∫ f(x) dx
For a continuous variable, probability is the area under the density curve.
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 probability density function 概率密度函数 gài lǜ mì dù hán shù cumulative distribution function 累积分布函数 lěi jī fēn bù hán shù percentiles 百分位数 bǎi fēn wèi shù median 中位数 zhōng wèi shù 4.2
利用正态分布与t分布的推断
大纲
Candidates should be able to: Notes and examples formulate hypotheses and apply a hypothesis test concerning the population mean using a small sample drawn from a normal population of unknown variance, using a t-test calculate a pooled estimate of a population variance from two samples Calculations based on either raw or summarised data may be required. formulate hypotheses concerning the difference of population means, and apply, as appropriate: - a 2-sample t-test - a paired sample t-test - a test using a normal distribution The ability to select the test appropriate to the circumstances of a problem is expected. determine a confidence interval for a population mean, based on a small sample from a normal population with unknown variance, using a t-distribution determine a confidence interval for a difference of population means, using a t-distribution or a normal distribution, as appropriate. 来源:剑桥国际大纲

一个高尔顿板:球穿过钉子下落堆积成钟形的正态分布。 当一个样本小而总体方差未知时,把你的假设检验(hypothesis test)建立在 $t$ 分布而不是正态上。同样的思想给出平均值的一个置信区间(confidence interval):
$$\bar{x} \pm t\,\frac{s}{\sqrt{n}},$$其中 $t$ 来自带 $n - 1$ 自由度的 $t$ 表。要比较两个总体,用一个双样本(2-sample)或配对样本 $t$ 检验,在适当时找到共享方差的一个合并估计(pooled estimate)之后。
对一个小样本,$t$ 分布更平、尾更重,所以它的临界值更大。 例题。 一个 $n = 10$ 的样本有平均值 $\bar{x} = 50$ 和标准差 $s = 4$。求平均值的一个 $95\%$ 置信区间(对 $9$ 个自由度用 $t = 2.262$)。
$$50 \pm 2.262\times\frac{4}{\sqrt{10}} = 50 \pm 2.86 \;\Rightarrow\; (47.1,\ 52.9).$$探索Why small samples need t instead of z
With $\sigma$ unknown you use $t$, and $t$ has heavier tails than the normal (drawn dashed behind it) — so its critical values are larger and the interval is wider. At the worked example's $9$ degrees of freedom the widget reads $t^* = 2.262$, exactly the table value used above. Sweep df up and $t$ collapses onto the normal.
探索The normal distribution
Shade a tail to find a probability — the basis of confidence intervals and hypothesis tests.
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 hypothesis test 假设检验 jiǎ shè jiǎn yàn confidence interval 置信区间 zhì xìn qū jiān pooled estimate 合并估计 hé bìng gū jì 4.3
卡方检验
大纲
Candidates should be able to: Notes and examples fit a theoretical distribution, as prescribed by a given hypothesis, to given data Questions will not involve lengthy calculations. use a $\chi^2$-test, with the appropriate number of degrees of freedom, to carry out the corresponding goodness of fit analysis Classes should be combined so that each expected frequency is at least 5. use a $\chi^2$-test, with the appropriate number of degrees of freedom, for independence in a contingency table. Yates’ correction is not required. Where appropriate, either rows or columns should be combined so that the expected frequency in each cell is at least 5. 来源:剑桥国际大纲
一个 $\chi^2$ 检验(卡方检验(chi-squared test))把观察计数 $O$ 与一个理论分布(theoretical distribution)的预期计数 $E$ 比较:
$$\chi^2 = \sum \frac{(O - E)^2}{E}.$$把这个与正确数目的自由度(degrees of freedom)的一个表值比较。两个用途:一个拟合优度(goodness of fit)检验(数据是否跟随提议的模型?),以及一个列联表(contingency table)中两个变量的独立性(independence)检验。
当 $\chi^2$ 超过临界值、落入着色的 $5\%$ 尾时,检验拒绝模型。 例题。 四个等可能的类别给出观察计数 $20, 30, 25, 25$(所以每个预期计数是 $25$)。在 $5\%$ 水平检验拟合。
$$\chi^2 = \frac{(20-25)^2 + (30-25)^2 + 0 + 0}{25} = \frac{25 + 25}{25} = 2.$$用 $4 - 1 = 3$ 个自由度,表值是 $7.815$。因为 $2 < 7.815$,不拒绝模型。探索The chi-squared distribution and its 5% tail
The worked example on this page gives $\chi^2 = 2$ with $3$ degrees of freedom against a table value of $7.815$ — the widget reproduces both. Drag df to see why the critical value changes with the number of categories.
探索Chi-squared test route
Follow observed and expected counts to a test decision.
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 chi-squared test 卡方检验 kǎ fāng jiǎn yàn theoretical distribution 理论分布 lǐ lùn fēn bù degrees of freedom 自由度 zì yóu dù goodness of fit 拟合优度 nǐ hé yōu dù independence 独立性 dú lì xìng contingency table 列联表 liè lián biǎo 4.4
非参数检验
大纲
Candidates should be able to: Notes and examples understand the idea of a non-parametric test and appreciate situations in which such a test might be useful e.g. when sampling from a population which cannot be assumed to be normally distributed. understand the basis of the sign test, the Wilcoxon signed-rank test and the Wilcoxon rank-sum test Including knowledge that Wilcoxon tests are valid only for symmetrical distributions. use a single-sample sign test and a single-sample Wilcoxon signed-rank test to test a hypothesis concerning a population median Including the use of normal approximations where appropriate. Questions will not involve tied ranks or observations equal to the population median value being tested. use a paired-sample sign test, a Wilcoxon matched-pairs signed-rank test and a Wilcoxon rank-sum test, as appropriate, to test for identity of populations. Including the use of normal approximations where appropriate. Questions will not involve tied ranks or zero‑difference pairs. 来源:剑桥国际大纲
一个非参数检验(non-parametric test)不假设数据是正态的,所以当那个假设失败时它有用。基本的是:
- 符号检验(sign test):数有多少值落在一个提议的中位数之上和之下,并用一个二项模型检验那些计数;
- 威尔科克森符号秩检验(Wilcoxon signed-rank test,配对数据的匹配对检验),它也用差的大小,而不只是它们的符号;
- 威尔科克森秩和检验(Wilcoxon rank-sum test),用于比较两个分开的样本。

符号检验数有多少值落在提议的中位数之上和之下,然后用一个二项模型检验那些计数 例题。 检验一个中位数是否是 $5$。在一个 $10$ 个值的样本中(没有等于 $5$ 的),$9$ 个在 $5$ 之上而 $1$ 个在它之下。在 $5\%$ 水平检验(双尾)。
在 $H_0$(中位数 $= 5$)下,之上的数目跟随 $B(10, 0.5)$。观察结果($9$ 个在上)是极端的,所以求 $P(X \geq 9) = \binom{10}{9}(0.5)^{10} + (0.5)^{10} = \dfrac{11}{1024} = 0.0107$。对一个双尾检验与 $\tfrac{1}{2}(5\%) = 0.025$ 比较。因为 $0.0107 < 0.025$,拒绝 $H_0$:有证据表明中位数不是 $5$。
探索Non-parametric test chooser
Choose the rank-based test that matches the data situation.
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 non-parametric test 非参数检验 fēi cān shù jiǎn yàn sign test 符号检验 fú hào jiǎn yàn Wilcoxon signed-rank test 威尔科克森符号秩检验 wēi ěr kē kè sēn fú hào zhì jiǎn yàn Wilcoxon rank-sum test 威尔科克森秩和检验 wēi ěr kē kè sēn zhì hé jiǎn yàn 4.5
概率母函数
大纲
Candidates should be able to: Notes and examples understand the concept of a probability generating function (PGF) and construct and use the PGF for given distributions Including the discrete uniform, binomial, geometric and Poisson distributions. use formulae for the mean and variance of a discrete random variable in terms of its PGF, and use these formulae to calculate the mean and variance of a given probability distribution use the result that the PGF of the sum of independent random variables is the product of the PGFs of those random variables. 来源:剑桥国际大纲

骰子:概率和离散随机变量的一个起点。 一个离散变量 $X$ 的概率母函数(probability generating function)是
$$G(t) = E(t^X) = \sum_x P(X = x)\,t^x.$$它把整个分布装进一个函数。平均值和方差来自它在 $t = 1$ 处的导数:$E(X) = G'(1)$ 且 $\mathrm{Var}(X) = G''(1) + G'(1) - \big(G'(1)\big)^2$。而且,独立变量之和的 PGF 是它们 PGF 的乘积。例题。 $X$ 有 $P(X=0) = 0.5$、$P(X=1) = 0.3$、$P(X=2) = 0.2$。用 PGF 求 $E(X)$。
这里 $G(t) = 0.5 + 0.3t + 0.2t^2$,所以 $G'(t) = 0.3 + 0.4t$ 且
$$E(X) = G'(1) = 0.3 + 0.4 = 0.7.$$
公平骰子的概率母函数把 1 到 6 上的等质量装进 G(t) 探索Probability generating function lab
G(x) = p0 + p1 x + p2 x^2 + ...
Change x and see how a PGF stores probabilities in powers of x.
词汇表 训练英文 中文 拼音 probability generating function 概率母函数 gài lǜ mǔ hán shù Further Probability & Statistics 进阶概率统计 jìn jiē gài lǜ tǒng jì 4.5
考试技巧
- 对于一个连续型随机变量,pdf 在它的范围上积分为 $1$,而 $E(X) = \int x f(x)\,dx$。
- 当样本小而总体方差未知时用 $t$ 分布;陈述自由度。
- 对一个卡方检验计算 $\sum (O-E)^2/E$、与正确自由度的临界值比较,并合并 $E < 5$ 的类别。
- 为每个检验陈述 $H_0$ 和 $H_1$ 并结合上下文给出结论。