การแพร่กระจายจ่ายสารให้เซลล์ได้เพียงระยะไม่กี่ทศนิยมของมิลลิเมตร สิ่งมีชีวิตขนาดใหญ่จำเป็นต้องมีการ ขนส่งมวลสาร: ระบบปั๊มและท่อส่งที่นำสารอาหารและของเสียไปยังเซลล์ทุกเซลล์ Three vessel types match three jobs:
โมโนนิวคลีโอไทด์ คือเพนโทส (ดีออกซีไรโบสหรือไรโบส), ฟอสเฟต และเบสไนโตรเจน ปฏิกิริยาetweenationระหว่างฟอสเฟตและน้ำตาลของเพื่อนข้างกันสร้างสายที่ยึดติดกันด้วย พันธะฟอสโฟไดเอสเทอร์ DNA เป็นสองสายตรงข้ามกัน: A คู่กับ T (พันธะไฮโดรเจนสอง), G คู่กับ C (สาม), บิดเป็นเกลียวคู่
You began as one fertilised egg cell. This unit explains how that cell divided, how the copies were shuffled and halved to make gametes, how identical genes became different tissues, and how the variety that produces is counted, classified and — increasingly — defended. It is the unit of microscopes, calculations and definitions done precisely.
WBI12 Cells, Development, Biodiversity and Conservation is the second IAS unit: 1 hour 30 minutes, 80 marks, all compulsory. It assesses Topic 3 (Cell Structure, Reproduction and Development) and Topic 4 (Plant Structure and Function, Biodiversity and Conservation). Expect labelling diagrams, microscope and magnification calculations, the index of diversity and Hardy–Weinberg questions, and long answers on conservation evaluation.
A eukaryotic 真核 cell is a set of specialised compartments:
Structure
Function
Nucleus and nucleolus
DNA stored behind a double membrane; nucleolus builds ribosomes
Ribosomes (80S)
site of protein synthesis
Rough endoplasmic reticulum
folds and transports proteins made on its ribosomes
Golgi apparatus
modifies, packages and ships proteins in vesicles
Mitochondrion
site of aerobic respiration, ATP production
Chloroplast (plants)
site of photosynthesis
Lysosome
digestive enzymes for worn organelles
Cell-surface membrane
controls transport, recognition
Cells organise into tissues 组织 (similar cells), organs 器官 (cooperating tissues) and organ systems 器官系统. A prokaryotic 原核 cell has none of the membrane-bound organelles: a cell wall, a slime capsule 荚膜, one circular DNA molecule plus plasmids 质粒, 70S ribosomes, and sometimes a flagellum 鞭毛.
Magnification 放大倍数 is how much bigger the image is; resolution 分辨率 is the smallest separation still seen as two. Light microscopes resolve about 200 nm; electron beams, far shorter in wavelength, resolve to a few nanometres — but need thin stained sections (TEM) or gold-coated surfaces (SEM). $M = \text{image size} / \text{actual size}$, keeping units consistent.
Worked check. A mitochondrion measures 14 mm on a photograph labelled ×20 000. Actual length $= 14\,000\ \mu\text{m} / 20\,000 = 0.7\ \mu$m. A nucleus that must be seen with its double membrane needs an electron microscope: the two membranes lie closer than a light microscope's resolution.
A protective layer outside the cell wall of some bacteria that can aid attachment and reduce attack by host defences.
eukaryotic/ˌjuːkərɪˈɒtɪk/
Describing cells with a membrane-bound nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles.
flagellum/fləˈdʒeləm/
A long, whip-like cell appendage involved in movement, such as the tail of a sperm cell.
Magnification/ˌmæɡnɪfɪˈkeɪʃn/
The ratio of an image's size to the corresponding actual size of the object.
organ systems/ˈɔːɡən ˈsɪstəmz/
Groups of organs working together, such as the digestive system.
organs/ˈɔːɡənz/
Several tissues working together at one function, such as the heart or a leaf.
plasmids/ˈplæzmɪdz/
Small circles of DNA in bacteria, separate from the main chromosome.
prokaryotic/ˌprɒkərɪˈɒtɪk/
Describing cells that lack a membrane-bound nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles.
resolution/ˌrezəˈluːʃn/
The ability to distinguish fine detail or closely separated features.
tissues/ˈtɪʃuːz/
A group of cells organised to carry out a particular function.
2.2
Meiosis: halving and shuffling
หลักสูตร
ข้อความ 3.9-3.13 (สเปก หน้า23): Loci และ linkage; Meiosis เป็นสองardwareที่ผลิต four genetically different haploid cells; Independent assortment ของ homologous pairs และ crossing over ของ chromatids เป็นแหล่งกำเนิดความหลากหลายสองอย่าง; ความเชี่ยวชาญของ gamete ในสัตว์เลี้ยงลูกด้วยนม (sperm acrosome, midpiece mitochondria, egg cytoplasm และ zona pellucida); การปฏิสนธิในสัตว์เลี้ยงลูกด้วยนม (acrosome reaction, cortical reaction ป้องกัน polyspermy) และในพืชมีดอก (pollen tube, double fertilisation)
แหล่งที่มา: หลักสูตร Cambridge International
English
Meiosis 减数分裂 is two successive divisions after one DNA replication, producing four genetically different haploid 单倍体 cells from one diploid 二倍体 cell. Two processes create the variation:
Independent assortment 独立分配 — each homologous pair lines up and separates at random in meiosis I; each gamete gets one of each pair, from either parent at random ($2^n$ combinations).
Crossing over 交叉互换 — in prophase I, homologous chromatids swap sections, mixing alleles within chromosome pairs.
Mammalian gametes are specialised for delivery and provisioning: the sperm 精子 carries an acrosome 顶体 (digestive enzymes), a midpiece of mitochondria and a flagellum; the egg 卵子 contributes nearly all cytoplasm and a zona pellucida 透明带 that locks out extra sperm after the cortical reaction 皮质反应. In flowering plants the pollen tube delivers two male nuclei: one fertilises the egg, the other the polar nuclei — double fertilisation 双受精.
The cap on a sperm head containing enzymes that digest a path into the egg.
cortical reaction
The release of cortical granule contents after sperm fusion, changing the egg's outer layers to help prevent entry of additional sperm.
Crossing over/ˈkrɒsɪŋ ˈəʊvə/
In prophase I, homologous chromatids swap sections, mixing alleles within chromosome pairs.
diploid/ˈdɪplɔɪd/
Having two complete sets of chromosomes in a cell nucleus.
double fertilisation
In flowering plants, fusion of one sperm nucleus with the egg and another with the polar nuclei, producing a zygote and endosperm.
egg
A female gamete that can fuse with a male gamete during fertilisation.
haploid/ˈhæplɔɪd/
Having one complete set of chromosomes in a cell nucleus.
Independent assortment/ˌɪndɪˈpendənt əˈsɔːtmənt/
Each homologous pair lines up and separates at random in meiosis I.
Meiosis/meɪˈəʊsɪs/
A type of nuclear division that produces haploid nuclei with half the original chromosome number and creates genetic variation.
sperm/spɜːm/
Male reproductive cells that can fuse with egg cells during fertilisation.
zona pellucida
The glycoprotein layer around a mammalian egg that participates in sperm recognition and changes after fertilisation.
2.3
Mitosis and the cell cycle
หลักสูตร
ข้อความ 3.14-3.16 พร้อมปฏิบัติการหลัก 6 (สเปก หน้า23): Cell cycle (interphase G1-S-G2, แล้ว mitosis และ cytokinesis); Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase กับสิ่งที่เกิดขึ้นกับโครโมโซมในแต่ละขั้นตอน; Mitosis ผลิตเซลล์ที่เหมือนกันทางพันธุกรรมสำหรับการเจริญเติบโต ซ่อมแซม และการสืบพันธุ์แบบไม่อาศัยเพศ; การคำนวณ mitotic index (cells in mitosis over total cells) และการใช้งานทางคลินิก; ปฏิบัติการหลัก 6 เตรียมและสังเกต root-tip squashes
แหล่งที่มา: หลักสูตร Cambridge International
English
Mitosis 有丝分裂 produces two genetically identical diploid cells: growth, repair, asexual reproduction. Interphase ($G_1$, S — DNA replication, $G_2$) fills most of the cycle; mitosis itself is prophase (chromosomes condense, spindle forms), metaphase (chromosomes line at the equator), anaphase (spindle fibres pull chromatids to poles), telophase (nuclear membranes reform), then cytokinesis 胞质分裂.
The mitotic index 有丝分裂指数$=$ cells in mitosis $\div$ total cells counted. High values in a tissue biopsy mean rapid division — a cancer signature.
Worked check. A root-tip squash shows 36 of 450 cells in mitosis: index $= 36/450 = 0.08 = 8\%$. If the cycle takes 20 hours, mitosis occupies $0.08 \times 20 = 1.6$ hours.
A totipotent 全能性 stem cell can form a whole organism (the first divisions of the zygote); a pluripotent 多能性 cell (inner blastocyst 胚泡) can form any tissue but not the whole organism. Differentiation happens by differential gene expression 差异基因表达: every cell keeps the whole genome, but each type switches on only its own subset. One gene can yield several proteins by post-transcriptional modification 转录后修饰 — RNA splicing choices of the pre-mRNA. The final phenotype also reflects the environment (height needs both genes and nutrition) and, for many traits, multiple genes acting together (polygenic 多基因 inheritance giving continuous variation).
Plant cells add a cellulose cell wall 细胞壁 joined to neighbours by plasmodesmata 胞间连丝. Cellulose chains bundle into microfibrils 微纤维 whose criss-cross laying gives tensile strength; secondary thickening with lignin strengthens and waterproofs.
Tissue
Built from
Function
Xylem 木质部
dead hollow cells, lignified walls
water and mineral transport; support
Phloem 韧皮部
living sieve-tube elements + companion cells
translocation of sugars
Water and ions matter beyond drinking: nitrate 硝酸盐 builds amino acids, calcium 钙离子 cross-links pectin in walls and signals inside cells, magnesium 镁离子 sits at the heart of chlorophyll — a shortage yellows the leaves.
Calcium ions: mineral ions needed for processes including signalling, muscle contraction and blood clotting.
cell wall/sel wɔːl/
A supportive layer outside the cell membrane in plants, fungi and many microorganisms.
magnesium/mæɡˈniːzɪəm/
Magnesium ions: mineral ions required in chlorophyll and as cofactors for many enzymes.
microfibrils
Fine bundles of cellulose chains that provide strength to plant cell walls.
nitrate/ˈnaɪtreɪt/
A compound containing the nitrate ion, NO3 with a single negative charge.
Phloem/ˈfləʊɪm/
The plant tissue carrying dissolved food from source to sink.
plasmodesmata/ˌplæzməʊdˈsmɑːtə/
Channels through plant cell walls that connect the cytoplasm of neighbouring cells.
Xylem/ˈzaɪləm/
The plant tissue carrying water and minerals up from the roots.
2.7
Measuring life: classification and biodiversity
หลักสูตร
ข้อความ 4.14-4.18 (สเปก หน้า28): การจัดหมวดหมู่จัดเรียงสิ่งมีชีวิตตามลักษณะร่วม, ด้วยระบบสามโดเมน (Archaea, Bacteria, Eukarya) และหลักฐานจากลำดับโมเลกุล; Species richness และ index of diversity (D) การคำนวณภายใน habitat; Heterozygosity index ภายใน species; Endemism; Threats to biodiversity. การคำนวณด้วยสูตร D จะถูกทดสอบทุกปี
แหล่งที่มา: หลักสูตร Cambridge International
English
Classification arranges life by shared characteristics; the three-domain system 三域系统 (Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya) rests on molecular evidence — ribosomal RNA sequences — that revealed Archaea are closer to us than to bacteria. Within a habitat, diversity has two measures:
Species richness 物种丰富度 — how many species.
Index of diversity 多样性指数 — $D = \dfrac{N(N-1)}{\sum n(n-1)}$, where $N$ is all individuals and $n$ each species' count. Higher $D$, more diverse.
Worked check. Habitat A: 3 species with counts 40, 35, 25 ($N = 100$). $D = 100 \times 99 / (40 \times 39 + 35 \times 34 + 25 \times 24) = 9900 / (1560 + 1190 + 600) = 9900/3350 = 2.96$. Habitat B: 3 species, counts 90, 6, 4: $D = 9900/(8010 + 30 + 12) = 1.23$. Same richness, very different balance — $D$ sees what richness cannot.
Within one species, the heterozygosity index 杂合度指数$H =$ (number of heterozygotes) $\div$ (number of individuals) measures genetic variety. A species found nowhere else is endemic 特有种 — and its island home makes it both precious and fragile.
Describing a species naturally restricted to a particular geographical area.
heterozygosity index
A measure of genetic diversity expressing the chance that two sampled alleles at a locus differ.
Index of diversity
A numerical measure combining information about species richness and the distribution of individuals among species.
Species richness/ˈspiːsiːz ˈrɪtʃnəs/
How many species.
three-domain system
Classification of cellular life into Bacteria, Archaea and Eukarya.
2.8
Niches, Hardy–Weinberg and conservation
หลักสูตร
Statements 4.19-4.21 (spec pp.28-29): niches concept and adaptation examples (anatomical, physiological, behavioural); the Hardy-Weinberg equation p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1 for allele frequencies in a population and the conditions it assumes; evaluating zoo and seed-bank conservation methods, captive breeding and habitat corridors.
แหล่งที่มา: หลักสูตร Cambridge International
English
A niche 生态位 is a species' way of life: its role, its requirements, its tolerances. Adaptations come in three registers — anatomical (thick fur), physiological (enzyme variants), behavioural (migration timing).
The Hardy–Weinberg equation 哈迪–温伯格方程 tracks allele frequencies in a large, randomly breeding population with no selection, migration or mutation:
$$p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1$$
$q^2$ = frequency of the homozygous recessive genotype. If 4 % of a population shows the recessive phenotype, $q^2 = 0.04$, so $q = 0.2$, $p = 0.8$, carriers $2pq = 0.32$.
Worked check. Of 500 foxes, 45 are homozygous recessive: $q^2 = 0.09$, $q = 0.3$, $p = 0.7$. Expected carriers $= 2pq \times 500 = 0.42 \times 500 = 210$.
Conservation questions want balance. Zoos and seed banks 种子库 keep species against extinction and run captive breeding, but cost space, lose natural behaviour and serve few individuals; habitat protection and corridors 走廊 preserve ecology at scale but need land, money and political will. Credit the specific argument, not the sentiment.
For the microbiology here (and Unit 4's): grow bacteria on nutrient agar or in broth, using aseptic technique 无菌技术 — sterilise loops by flaming, flame bottle necks, work near an updraught, seal plates, incubate below body temperature so human pathogens cannot grow. Count colonies on spread or pour plates (each colony from one cell or a clump: colony-forming units), or count cells with a haemocytometer, or follow turbidity 浊度 in broth.
Worked check. In the exponential phase, the growth-rate constant $k = (\log_{10} N_t - \log_{10} N_0)/(0.301 \times t)$. From $1 \times 10^4$ to $4 \times 10^7$ cells in 4 hours: $\log$ difference $= 3.602$, so $k = 3.602/(0.301 \times 4) \approx 3.0$ divisions per hour — about a 20-minute generation time.
Procedures that reduce contamination by unwanted microorganisms during handling and culture.
turbidity/tɜːˈbɪdɪti/
Cloudiness caused by suspended material; in a microbial culture it can provide an indirect estimate of cell concentration.
2.6
ตรวจสอบตัวเอง
English
Calculate the actual width of a nucleus that appears 24 mm wide at ×4 000. Give your answer in µm.
Name the two processes in meiosis that create genetic variation, and state when each happens.
A cell has 2 a.u. of DNA in G1. Sketch how DNA content changes through S phase, meiosis I and meiosis II.
Explain why all cells of a blastocyst can become any tissue, but a mature muscle cell cannot.
Explain two ways xylem is adapted to its function, one structural and one chemical.
Two habitats each contain 5 plant species. Explain why the index of diversity can still differ between them.
In a population of 1 000, 16 people show a recessive condition. Calculate q, p and the expected number of carriers.
A species of snail is endemic to one island. Explain why endemic species face higher extinction risk.
State three conditions a population must meet for the Hardy–Weinberg equation to hold.
Give one benefit and one limitation of seed banks compared with protecting habitat.
Answers: 1 $24\,000/4\,000 = 6\ \mu$m; 2 crossing over in prophase I, independent assortment in metaphase/anaphase I (and II); 3 rises to 4 in S, halves to 2 after meiosis I, halves to 1 after meiosis II, restored to 2 at fertilisation; 4 blastocyst cells are pluripotent — all genes still switchable; a muscle cell has switched off other pathways permanently in ordinary conditions; 5 hollow, lignified dead cells form continuous water columns with no cytoplasm to resist flow; lignin waterproofs and strengthens walls against collapse; 6 D weighs the evenness of abundance, not just the species count; 7 $q^2 = 0.016$, $q \approx 0.126$, $p \approx 0.874$, carriers $2pq \approx 0.22$, about 220 people; 8 a single local event (storm, disease, introduced predator, habitat loss) removes the whole species at once; 9 large population, random mating, no selection/mutation/migration; 10 seed banks store genetic diversity cheaply and safely against habitat loss (benefit) but species exist out of their ecology — no interactions, no evolution in place, and recolonisation is uncertain (limitation).
The paper that tests your hands — without your hands
English
You have pipetted Benedict's onto glucose, squashed a root tip, and rinsed beetroot until the water ran clear. WBI13 asks you to write about exactly that work: why each step was done, what makes it fair, how the numbers are turned into tables and graphs, and what the result honestly shows. Nothing in the paper is new theory — it is Units 1 and 2 seen through the eyes of someone who actually did the practicals.
WBI13/01 Practical Skills in Biology I is the third IAS unit: 1 hour 20 minutes, 50 marks, all compulsory, usually three long questions built on core-practical contexts. Calculators and rulers are required. The specification lists what is assessed: solving problems in practical contexts, commenting on design and methods, presenting data, evaluating results with reference to uncertainties 不确定度 and errors, identifying variables, plotting and interpreting graphs, processing data with the mathematical skills of Appendix 6, knowing the apparatus and techniques, and planning an investigation to test a hypothesis 假设.
A question word to respect: justify — every step must be paired with the reason it makes the data valid (rinsing beetroot removes pigment from cut surfaces, so measured absorbance reflects membrane leakage, not slicing damage).
A proposed explanation or prediction that can be tested using evidence.
uncertainties
Estimated limits or measures of doubt associated with measured or calculated values.
3.1
Variables and a fair test
English
The independent variable 自变量 is what you deliberately change (presence or concentration of trifluralin; alcohol concentration). The dependent variable 因变量 is what you measure (percentage of cells in each mitotic stage; absorbance of leaked pigment). Everything else that could affect the dependent variable is a control variable 控制变量, kept the same with a reason: temperature, because it changes membrane fluidity and enzyme action; volume of solution, because it dilutes pigment differently. Say the variable and the reason — the mark scheme needs both.
A control treatment 对照处理 is a whole treatment left unchanged (solvent with no trifluralin; water instead of methanol) so that any difference can be attributed to the independent variable alone. Repeat readings give reliability, a mean, and a measure of spread; they do not remove a systematic error 系统误差 such as a balance zero error, which shifts every reading the same way.
A whole treatment left unchanged (solvent with no trifluralin; water instead of methanol) so that any difference can be attributed to the independent variable alone.
control variable/kənˈtrəʊl ˈveərɪəbl/
A factor kept constant or otherwise accounted for so its effect does not distort an investigation.
dependent variable/dɪˈpendənt ˈveərɪəbl/
The measured or calculated outcome whose response to changes in another variable is studied.
independent variable/ˌɪndɪˈpendənt ˈveərɪəbl/
An input or factor whose value is chosen or varied to examine its effect on another quantity.
systematic error/ˌsɪstəˈmætɪk ˈerə/
A consistent measurement bias caused by the method or instrument.
3.2
The nine IAS core practicals
English
The paper's contexts come from these. Know each method, its measurements and its pitfalls.
Core practical
Method core
What is measured
1 Sugar and starch concentrations
Colour standards made by serial dilution; Benedict's heated with standards and samples; iodine for starch
Colour match against standards — semi-quantitative 半定量
2 Vitamin C content
DCPIP titration: drops (or volumes) of sample that decolourise the indicator
Volume at endpoint; compare with a known ascorbic-acid standard
3 Membrane permeability
Equal beetroot pieces, rinsed, in alcohol or temperature treatments; pigment loss into the medium
Absorbance in a colorimeter 色度计 (zeroed on plain solvent)
4 Enzyme rate
Substrate + enzyme at controlled pH buffer and temperature; samples tested at fixed intervals
Initial rate from time course; 1/time as a rate proxy
5 Microscopy and scale
Prepared slide, low to high power; labelled drawings; graticule 目镜测微尺 calibrated against a stage micrometer
Cell dimensions, magnification, scale
6 Root-tip squash
Tip cut, warm acid, rinse, stain (Toluidine blue, acetic orcein), squash, scan and count
Cells in each mitotic stage; mitotic index 有丝分裂指数
7 Plant sections
Plan diagrams (no cells) and cellular drawings of root, stem and leaf transverse sections
Tissue arrangement and identification
8 Fibre tensile strength
Same-length fibres hung with increasing masses until breaking
Mass at break, compared between treatments
9 Antimicrobial plants
Aseptic technique: flame loops and necks, agar plates seeded, filter-paper discs of plant extract; incubate inverted below 30 °C
Zone of inhibition around discs
For Core Practical 9, aseptic technique protects you and the culture: work near a Bunsen updraught, open plates briefly, tape (do not seal) lids, incubate below human body temperature so pathogens cannot multiply.
An instrument that measures light absorption or transmission through a sample at a selected wavelength.
graticule
A scale in a microscope eyepiece that must be calibrated against a known scale before measuring specimens.
mitotic index/maɪˈtɒtɪk ˈɪndeks/
The proportion of observed cells undergoing mitosis.
semi-quantitative/ˈsemi ˈkwɒntɪteɪtɪv/
Providing approximate amounts, ranges or comparisons rather than precise numerical measurements.
3.1
Planning an investigation
English
The specification's planning list is your mark scheme. A full-credit plan names: the apparatus; the independent, dependent and controlled variables (each control with its reason); how each variable is measured with the appropriate instrument and technique; whether repeats are appropriate; the safety issues and how they are dealt with; how the data will be used (table headings planned, graph type chosen); and the sources of uncertainty or systematic error with how each is reduced.
Safety in biology is about the specific risk and the specific control: methanol is flammable, so keep it from flames; bacteria are cultured at low temperature so human pathogens do not grow; sharp scalpels cut away from the body.
3.2 3.3
Making measurements honestly
English
Choose the instrument that matches the quantity: a graticule for microscope lengths, a ruler for bench lengths, a colorimeter for colour intensity, a stopwatch for time, a syringe or graduated pipette for small volumes. Quote only the figures the instrument supports: a ruler graduated in millimetres gives a length to the nearest millimetre, with an absolute uncertainty 绝对不确定度 of ± half a division (± 0.5 mm) or ± one division by the conservative course convention — state which you use.
Percentage uncertainty 百分比不确定度$=$ (absolute uncertainty $\div$ measurement) $\times 100\%$. For a product or quotient of independent measurements, add the percentage uncertainties; for a difference, add the absolute uncertainties first. Significant figures 有效数字: the scheme rejects over-claimed precision — 12.67 % from data given to 4 significant figures is accepted, 12.70 is not, because the final digit invents precision the inputs do not have.
The estimated uncertainty in a measurement expressed in the same units as the measurement.
Percentage uncertainty/pəˈsentɪdʒ ʌnˈsɜːtənti/
The absolute uncertainty divided by the measured value, multiplied by one hundred.
Significant figures/sɪɡˈnɪfɪkənt ˈfɪɡəz/
The meaningful digits in a measured or rounded number, beginning with its first non-zero digit.
3.3
Presenting data: tables and graphs
English
A table earns its marks by rule: each column headed with quantity and unit (permeability / a.u.), units never written inside cells, all data entered exactly, and no units or units-symbols invented for arbitrary instrument readings — the paper supplies a.u. (arbitrary units). Draw the table before entering values so nothing is squeezed in.
Graph rules earn marks the same way: axes labelled with quantity and unit, the independent variable on the x-axis, a scale that uses most of the grid without awkward fractions, no broken axis, points plotted with a sharp cross, and the right form — a bar chart 柱状图 for categoric treatments (bars not touching), a line graph 折线图 for a continuous variable. A best-fit line or curve shows the trend; joining every dot claims a pattern the data may not have.
A graph using separated bars to represent values or frequencies for categories.
line graph
A graph using plotted points, often joined by lines, to show how one variable changes with another.
3.3
Analysing: gradients and percentages
English
A gradient 梯度 comes from a large triangle drawn on the best-fit line, at least half the line's length: gradient $= \Delta y / \Delta x$, with the y-unit and x-unit divided out in the answer. Read values off the line (not a data point) when interpolating.
The percentage family recurs every year. Percentage change: $\dfrac{\text{final} - \text{initial}}{\text{initial}} \times 100\%$. Percentage difference (the 2025 formula): difference $\div$ mean of the two values $\times 100\%$. From a bar chart, percentage of cells in a stage $\times$ total cells $=$ cells in that stage — 80 % of 98 cells is 78.4, which reports as 78 cells, because 0.4 of a cell does not exist.
Worked check. Highest cassava region 33.65, lowest 29.64 g per 100 g. Difference $= 33.65 - 29.64 = 4.01$. Mean $= (33.65 + 29.64)/2 = 31.645$. Percentage difference $= 4.01 \div 31.645 \times 100 = 12.67\%$ (2 s.f. acceptable: 13 %; never 12.70 %).
The spatial rate and direction of change of a quantity; for a scalar field its gradient points towards the steepest increase.
3.3
Evaluating and extending
English
An anomalous result 异常值 is a reading inconsistent with the others — a point far from the line — checked by repeating that treatment, not silently deleted. Improvements must be realistic and named: a colorimeter instead of colour matching (quantitative, removes judgement); zeroing on plain solvent (removes a systematic offset); more concentrations within the range tested (narrows interpolation); repeating to compute a mean and standard deviation 标准差 (SD), standard error or range, then drawing error bars 误差线. To extend a study to variability between organisms, repeat on different individuals under the same conditions — not more measurements on the same one — then report a mean and a named measure of spread.
State the conclusion inside the measured range: a graph is evidence for the model between the first and last data points, and a zero intercept or an unexpected offset is information about the method or the model, not a nuisance.
A reading inconsistent with the others — a point far from the line — checked by repeating that treatment, not silently deleted.
error bars
Lines on a graph indicating a stated measure of variation or uncertainty around a plotted value.
standard deviation/ˈstændəd ˌdiːvɪˈeɪʃn/
A measure of spread equal to the square root of the variance.
3.3
What written practice cannot do
English
This unit examines written practical skills. A full-mark answer here does not show that you carried out aseptic technique cleanly, focused a microscope patiently, or squashed a root tip without smearing it — the practical experience itself is developed in class while studying Units 1 and 2, and only written evidence is assessed here. Practise the real practicals; then describe them.
3.3
ตรวจสอบตัวเอง
English
In a trifluralin investigation, state the independent variable and explain why some seedlings were placed in solvent without trifluralin.
List, in order, the steps for preparing and examining a root-tip squash, naming one acceptable stain.
98 cells are seen; 80 % are in metaphase. How many cells is that? Why is your answer a whole number?
Highest region 33.65 and lowest 29.64 g per 100 g of tissue. Calculate the percentage difference using the mean of the two values.
A student's beetroot method reads: "cut pieces, put in alcohol, measure colour." Add the three justifications the mark scheme most needs.
Which graph type for: (a) permeability of four named liquids; (b) permeability against time over 20 hours?
Explain the difference between a quantitative and a semi-quantitative result, with one example of each from the core practicals.
State two things repeat readings improve and one thing they cannot remove.
Describe how to extend a starch-variability study from one cassava root to many, naming a statistic you would report.
Why is 12.70 % rejected when 12.67 % is accepted, in a percentage-difference answer?
Answers: 1 presence (or concentration) of trifluralin; the solvent-only treatment is a control, so any change can be attributed to trifluralin rather than the solvent; 2 cut 4–5 mm of root tip, warm dilute acid, rinse, stain (e.g. Toluidine blue or acetic orcein), squash under a coverslip, scan then count on high power; 3 $0.80 \times 98 = 78.4 \approx 78$ cells, because a fraction of a cell cannot be observed; 4 difference 4.01, mean 31.645, $4.01/31.645 \times 100 = 12.67\%$; 5 equal-sized pieces so surface area does not change pigment loss; rinse first so absorbance reflects membrane leakage not cut damage; a named control variable with reason (e.g. temperature — it affects membrane permeability); 6 (a) bar chart, (b) line graph; 7 quantitative gives an objective measured value (DCPIP volume; colorimeter absorbance), semi-quantitative gives an estimate by judgement against standards (colour matching in Benedict's); 8 reliability and an estimate of spread (mean, SD); a systematic error such as a zero offset; 9 measure roots grown under the same conditions, repeat measurements across different roots, report the mean with SD (or standard error/range/error bars); 10 the input data justify 4 significant figures but not the fourth decimal place invented by rounding up — the scheme accepts 12.67 (or 13), penalising over-claimed precision.
A wheat field intercepts sunlight, fixes carbon, feeds a food chain — and loses energy at every step. This unit follows the energy from photon to ecosystem, then turns to the smallest participants: the microbes that recycle, the pathogens that take, and the immune system that defends. WBI14 is also the most calculation-heavy paper after Unit 1: expect NPP, growth constants, diversity indices and time-of-death arithmetic.
WBI14 Energy, Environment, Microbiology and Immunity is the first IA2 unit: 1 hour 30 minutes, 90 marks, all compulsory. It assesses Topic 5 (Energy Flow, Ecosystems and the Environment) and Topic 6 (Microbiology, Immunity and Forensics).
The overall reaction: $6\mathrm{CO_2} + 6\mathrm{H_2O} \rightarrow \mathrm{C_6H_{12}O_6} + 6\mathrm{O_2}$, driven by light energy. In the thylakoid 类囊体 membranes, the light-dependent reactions 光反应 photolyse water (releasing O₂ and H⁺), photophosphorylate 光合磷酸化 ADP and reduce NADP. In the stroma 基质, the light-independent reactions 暗反应 (Calvin cycle) fix carbon dioxide onto ribulose bisphosphate with rubisco, reduce the products using the ATP and reduced NADP from stage one, and make GALP — some to glucose, most to regenerate RuBP.
Structure matches function: thylakoids stacked for absorbing surface; stroma packed with enzymes for the cycle.
Pigments and spectra
Chlorophyll a and b absorb red and blue light; carotenoids widen the range and protect. The absorption spectrum 吸收光谱 shows what each pigment takes up; the action spectrum 作用光谱 shows what rate of photosynthesis each wavelength drives — their agreement is evidence that these pigments do the work. Chromatography separates pigments by solubility; $\mathrm{Rf} = \text{distance moved by pigment} / \text{distance moved by solvent}$.
Limiting factors 限制因素: light intensity, CO₂ concentration, temperature. A greenhouse raises the weakest of the three — and exam answers say which and why.
Gross primary productivity 总初级生产力 (GPP) is the energy fixed by photosynthesis per area per time (kJ m⁻² yr⁻¹). Plants spend much of it on their own respiration; what remains is net primary productivity 净初级生产力:
$$\mathrm{NPP} = \mathrm{GPP} - R$$
Only about 10 % of the energy at each trophic level passes upward — lost to respiration as heat, egestion, excretion and parts never eaten. That is why chains rarely exceed four or five levels and why top predators are rare.
Worked check. A grassland fixes 45 000 kJ m⁻² yr⁻¹ and respirers 19 000. NPP $= 26\,000$ kJ m⁻² yr⁻¹. Cattle eating that grass keep about 10 %: 2 600 kJ m⁻² yr⁻¹. Humans eating the cattle keep 260 — the energy arithmetic behind "eating lower on the chain feeds more people".
The total rate at which producers capture energy or fix carbon before their respiratory losses are subtracted.
net primary productivity
The rate of energy storage or biomass production by producers after subtracting their respiratory losses from gross primary productivity.
4.3
Ecosystems, populations and succession
หลักสูตร
English
Statements 5.11-5.15 with Core Practical 11 (spec pp.30-31): the terms habitat, population, community and ecosystem; biotic and abiotic factors controlling distribution and abundance; the niche concept applied; predator-prey cycles; methods of measuring abundance (quadrats, transects, capture-mark-recapture); stages of succession from colonisation by pioneer species to climax community (Core Practical 11 surveys a habitat).
แหล่งที่มา: หลักสูตร Cambridge International
English
Four definitions, precisely: habitat 栖息地 (where), population 种群 (one species' individuals), community 群落 (all populations), ecosystem 生态系统 (community + environment). Abiotic factors (light, water, temperature, pH) and biotic factors (competition, predation, disease) set who lives where and how abundantly — together, the niche 生态位.
Predator and prey cycle with a delay: hares rise, lynx follow, hares fall, lynx starve — a lag of about a quarter cycle.
Succession 演替 begins when pioneer species colonise bare ground; each stage changes the soil and microclimate, enabling the next, until the climax community 顶极群落 stabilises. Measuring abundance uses quadrats and transects (random sampling for estimates, systematic along a gradient) and capture-mark-recapture for animals ($N \approx \text{first catch} \times \text{second catch} / \text{marked recaptures}$).
Evidence comes from direct temperature records, ice cores (trapped air giving ancient CO₂), tree rings (dendrochronology 树轮年代学) and pollen layers in peat. The enhanced greenhouse effect 温室效应: outgoing long-wave radiation is absorbed by CO₂, methane and nitrous oxide and re-emitted downward. The gases differ — methane is potent but short-lived; CO₂ lasts centuries; nitrous oxide combines both — so policy weighs global warming potential 全球增温潜势 against lifetime.
Extrapolating a trend beyond its data is a judgement, not a fact: state the assumption (the trend continues) and its weakness. Effects already examined: shifting rainfall and species ranges, and — close to this course — temperature's effect on enzyme rates in cold-blooded organisms and whole ecosystems.
Worked check. Methane's warming potential is about 28× CO₂'s per kg, but it lasts ~12 years against centuries. A one-tonne methane leak matters 28× a one-tonne CO₂ leak this decade, but fades while the CO₂ persists — the arithmetic of "warming potential vs cumulative load".
Evolution is a change in allele frequency 等位基因频率. It needs variation (mutation, meiosis) and a filter: directional selection 定向选择 shifts the mean when the environment moves; stabilising selection 稳定选择 trims the extremes in a stable one. Drift changes frequencies by chance in small populations; gene flow (migration) mixes them back.
Speciation 物种形成 needs isolation: allopatric 异域的 (a physical barrier — allopatric = different homeland) or sympatric 同域的 (reproductive isolation in the same place — behavioural, temporal or genetic). Isolated populations diverge until they can no longer interbreed.
How common a particular allele is among all copies of that gene in a population.
allopatric/ˌæləˈpætrɪk/
Describing speciation in populations separated geographically, which reduces or prevents gene flow.
directional selection/daɪˈrekʃənl sɪˈlekʃn/
Selection favouring one extreme of a trait, shifting the population in that direction.
Speciation/ˌspiːʃɪˈeɪʃn/
The formation of new species when populations diverge until they can no longer interbreed.
stabilising selection/ˈsteɪbəlaɪzɪŋ sɪˈlekʃn/
Selection favouring average individuals and removing extremes, keeping a trait stable.
sympatric
Describing speciation without geographical separation, following the development of reproductive isolation.
4.6
Culturing microorganisms
หลักสูตร
English
Statements 6.1-6.4 with Core Practical 13 (spec p.33): culture media (nutrient agar, broth); aseptic technique in detail; methods of measuring microbial growth (cell counts, turbidity, viable counts by dilution plating); the bacterial growth curve's four phases (lag, log/exponential, stationary, death) and the exponential growth-rate constant k; Core Practical 13 investigates growth rate in liquid culture with a calibration curve.
แหล่งที่มา: หลักสูตร Cambridge International
English
Aseptic technique protects you and the culture: flame the loop to red heat, flame bottle necks, lift lids briefly, seal plates with tape, incubate at 25 °C (never body temperature, so human pathogens cannot multiply). Measure growth by direct cell count (haemocytometer), turbidity 浊度 in broth, or viable counts by dilution plating 稀释涂布 (colonies counted × dilution factor).
The growth curve: lag 延迟期 (enzymes synthesising), log 对数期 (exponential doubling), stationary 稳定期 (deaths = divisions), death 衰亡期. The exponential constant:
Worked check. From $2\times10^4$ to $1.6\times10^7$ cells in 5 hours: log difference $= 2.903$; $k = 2.903/(0.301\times5) = 1.93$ generations per hour — a doubling time of about 31 minutes.
Bacteria: cell wall, plasmids, ribosomes, circular DNA, some with capsule and flagellum. Viruses: nucleic acid (DNA or RNA) in a capsid 衣壳, some with an envelope — no organelles, no metabolism of their own; they hijack host cells. Mycobacterium tuberculosis 结核分枝杆菌 infects lungs, surviving inside macrophages; HIV 人类免疫缺陷病毒 destroys T helper cells, so the immune system collapses and TB reactivates — the classic AIDS-defining illness.
Barriers come first: skin, mucus and cilia, stomach acid, lysozyme in tears, and the clotting cascade sealing wounds.
The protein coat surrounding a virus's genetic material.
HIV/ˌeɪtʃ aɪ ˈviː/
Human immunodeficiency virus: a virus that attacks immune cells, particularly helper T cells, and can cause AIDS.
Mycobacterium tuberculosis
The bacterium that causes tuberculosis.
4.8
การตอบสนองของภูมิคุ้มกัน
หลักสูตร
ข้อบ่งชี้ 6.8-6.12 (คู่มือ p.34): การตอบสนองที่ไม่จำเพาะ (inflammation, lysozyme, interferon); Antigens; การตอบสนองทาง体液 - B effector cells แยกแยะเป็น plasma cells ที่หลั่งแอนติบอดี, B memory cells ให้การตอบสนองครั้งที่สอง; การตอบสนองทางเซลล์ - T helper, T killer และ T memory cells; โครงสร้างของแอนติบอดี (四条 polypeptide chains, variable region binding site) และ complex ของ antigen-antibody; ภูมิคุ้มกันตามธรรมชาติและเทียม, ภูมิคุ้มกัน active และ passive; การฉีดวัคซีนและ herd immunity; การแข่งวิวัฒนาการระหว่างเชื้อโรคและผู้รับ
แหล่งที่มา: หลักสูตร Cambridge International
English
Non-specific: inflammation (vasodilation and fluid leak bringing phagocytes), phagocytosis, interferon. Specific — antigens 抗原 trigger it:
Humoral 体液: B effector cells → plasma cells → antibodies 抗体; B memory cells B记忆细胞 remain for the faster, stronger secondary response.
Cellular 细胞: T helper cells coordinate, T killer cells T杀伤细胞 destroy infected cells, T memory cells persist.
An antibody is four polypeptide chains (two heavy, two light) with a variable region 可变区 forming one specific binding site — the shape that fits one antigen. Immunity splits two ways: active 主动 (your own antibodies — natural infection or vaccination) vs passive 被动 (given antibodies — mother to baby, antiserum); natural vs artificial in each. Vaccination works at the scale of populations too (herd immunity 群体免疫) — but pathogens evolve back: the evolutionary race.
Worked check. A vaccine's second dose produces antibody levels ten times the first and within days rather than weeks: clonal selection finds the memory B cells, which divide rapidly into plasma cells — the secondary response the primary response built.
Bacteriostatic 抑菌的 antibiotics stop bacterial growth; bactericidal 杀菌的 ones kill. Resistance arises by mutation and spreads by selection whenever exposure kills the susceptible and spares the resistant — finishing a course and avoiding unnecessary use both slow it. Hospital-acquired infections thrive where vulnerable patients, invasive devices and resistant strains meet; hand hygiene, sterile procedure and isolating carriers break the chain.
Decomposers recycle carbon and nitrogen — the ecosystem's waste system. The polymerase chain reaction 聚合酶链式反应 cycles denaturation (95 °C), primer annealing (50–60 °C) and extension (72 °C), doubling the target DNA each cycle: $n$ cycles give $2^n$ copies. Gel electrophoresis 凝胶电泳 drags negatively charged DNA fragments through gel — short fragments run furthest. The profile 电泳图谱 of band positions identifies individuals (enough loci differ between unrelated people) and measures relatedness (shared bands).
Time of death narrows by four clocks: body temperature (falls ~1 °C per hour, modified by size, clothing, air), rigor mortis 尸僵 (sets then passes), decomposition degree, and insect succession on the body — each stage's arrivals time-stamp the interval.
Worked check. A body found at 22 °C core temperature in a 15 °C room: $(37-22)/(1\ ^\circ\text{C per hour}) \approx 15$ hours — but state the assumptions (still air, average build) before trusting it.
A method that repeatedly copies a chosen DNA region using primers, a DNA polymerase and cycles of temperature change.
profile
The pattern of separated bands produced by electrophoresis, used to compare biological samples.
rigor mortis
Stiffening of muscles after death as ATP becomes unavailable to release actin–myosin cross-bridges.
4.10
ตรวจสอบตัวเอง
English
Name the products of the light-dependent reactions used by the Calvin cycle.
A crop fixes 60 000 kJ m⁻² yr⁻¹ and respirers 20 000. Calculate NPP and the energy reaching a third trophic level at 10 % transfer each step.
Explain why the action spectrum is evidence that chlorophyll carries out photosynthesis.
Distinguish directional and stabilising selection with one example of each.
Give two reasons a food chain rarely exceeds five trophic levels.
A culture grows from $5\times10^3$ to $4\times10^6$ in 6 hours. Calculate k and the doubling time.
Explain why a second vaccine dose raises antibody titre far faster than the first.
State the difference between bacteriostatic and bactericidal, and why the distinction matters for a patient with a weak immune system.
Three PCR cycles from one double-stranded template: how many copies?
A body's core is 30 °C. Estimate the time since death under standard assumptions and name one factor that would extend the true interval.
Answers: 1 ATP and reduced NADP; 2 NPP $= 40\,000$; third level $= 400\,\text{kJ m}^{-2}\text{yr}^{-1}$ (10 % of 4 000); 3 wavelengths chlorophyll absorbs best are the wavelengths that drive photosynthesis best; 4 directional — antibiotic resistance shifting the mean; stabilising — human birth weights; 5 energy lost at each step to respiration/heat/egestion, so little remains; producers also lose to respiration before the first transfer; 6 log difference 2.903, $k = 2.903/(0.301\times6) = 1.61$ h⁻¹, doubling ≈ 37 min; 7 memory B cells persist; the second encounter selects clones that divide rapidly into plasma cells — the secondary response; 8 bacteriostatic stops growth (immune system must clear), bactericidal kills outright — a weak immune system needs bactericidal support; 9 $2^3 = 8$ copies; 10 $(37-30)/1 = 7$ hours; heavy clothing or a warm room slows cooling, so true time is longer.
Sprint for a bus and your body performs a symphony: muscles burn glucose faster, the heart doubles its output, ventilation deepens, sweat starts, and the kidney re-tunes its water recovery — all controlled without a conscious thought. This unit follows that machinery: respiration at molecular scale, muscle and heart at tissue scale, nerves and hormones as the controllers, and gene technology as the modern window onto it.
WBI15 Respiration, Internal Environment, Coordination and Gene Technology is the second IA2 unit: 1 hour 45 minutes, 90 marks. It assesses Topic 7 (Respiration, Muscles and the Internal Environment) and Topic 8 (Coordination, Response and Gene Technology), and one 20-mark question is built on a pre-released scientific article — you will have studied it in advance.
electron transport chain pumps H⁺; chemiosmosis through ATP synthase; O₂ the final acceptor
most ATP
Anaerobic conditions stop the chain — reduced NAD cannot be recycled — so pyruvate accepts its hydrogen and becomes lactate 乳酸 in muscle. After exercise, lactate is carried to the liver and rebuilt into glucose (needing oxygen: the oxygen debt 氧债).
Respiratory quotient 呼吸商: $\mathrm{RQ} = \mathrm{CO_2}\ \text{produced} / \mathrm{O_2}\ \text{consumed}$. Carbohydrate 1.0, protein 0.9, lipid ≈ 0.7 — an organism's RQ reveals what it is burning.
Worked check. A respirometer shows 60 cm³ CO₂ produced and 60 cm³ O₂ consumed in the same interval: RQ = 1.0 — carbohydrate. A germinating seed with RQ 0.7 is burning lipid reserves.
The first stage of respiration, splitting glucose into two pyruvate in the cytoplasm.
Krebs cycle/krebz ˈsaɪkl/
A cycle of enzyme-controlled reactions that oxidises acetyl groups, releasing carbon dioxide and producing reduced coenzymes and a small amount of ATP or its equivalent.
lactate/ˈlækteɪt/
The ion formed from lactic acid, produced when pyruvate is reduced in lactate fermentation.
Link reaction/lɪŋk rɪˈækʃn/
The conversion of pyruvate to acetyl-CoA, releasing carbon dioxide and reducing NAD before the Krebs cycle.
A tendon 肌腱 joins muscle to bone; a ligament 韧带 joins bone to bone across a joint; muscles work in antagonistic pairs. A skeletal muscle fibre is a fused, multinucleate cell packed with myofibrils 肌原纤维 of actin 肌动蛋白 and myosin 肌球蛋白.
Contraction is the sliding filament cycle: an action potential releases Ca²⁺; calcium exposes actin's binding sites; the energised myosin head (its ATP split) attaches, pulls the actin, then detaches when new ATP binds — thousands of heads per second, each stroke a few nanometres.
Fast-twitch fibres: thick, few mitochondria, quick and powerful, fatigue fast (sprinting). Slow-twitch: many mitochondria, rich blood supply, myoglobin — endurance.
Cardiac muscle is myogenic 自主性的: it beats without nerve input. The sino-atrial node 窦房结 sets the pace; the wave spreads over the atria to the atrio-ventricular node, then along Purkyne fibres to the ventricles — atria contract first, ventricles a fraction later.
The cardiovascular control centre and the ventilation centre in the medulla oblongata 延髓 adjust both systems to demand: chemical receptors sense CO₂ and pH, baroreceptors pressure.
Homeostasis 稳态 holds the internal environment in dynamic equilibrium — not stillness, but variables oscillating inside narrow limits. Negative feedback 负反馈 corrects deviations in either direction (the thermostat pattern); positive feedback 正反馈 amplifies them (a spiral, not a loop — as in an action potential or fever runaway).
Thermoregulation runs through the hypothalamus 下丘脑: heat loss by vasodilation and sweating; heat conservation by vasoconstriction, shivering and hair erection. Adrenaline 肾上腺素 prepares the fight-or-flight response — heart rate, blood glucose and airways all respond together.
Blood enters the nephron 肾单位's glomerulus at high pressure — the afferent arteriole is wider than the efferent — and small molecules are forced through podocytes and the basement membrane into Bowman's capsule 肾小囊 (ultrafiltration: everything except cells and large proteins). The proximal convoluted tubule 近曲小管 reabsorbs all glucose and amino acids plus most salts and water (active transport then osmosis). The loop of Henle 亨勒环 builds a water-potential gradient down the medulla by countercurrent multiplication. The collecting duct 集合管 makes the final decision: ADH 抗利尿激素 from the pituitary inserts aquaporins so more water is reabsorbed — concentrated urine when dehydrated, dilute when not.
Excess amino acids are deaminated 脱氨 in the liver; the toxic ammonia becomes urea 尿素 for excretion.
Worked check. ADH present → collecting duct walls permeable → water leaves down the gradient into the medullary blood → small volume, concentrated urine. Alcohol suppresses ADH — large volume, dilute.
A transcription factor 转录因子 binds a gene's promoter and switches transcription on or off. Steroid hormones diffuse through the membrane and act as transcription factors themselves — one gene can serve several tissues. Epigenetics 表观遗传学 silences genes without changing the base sequence: methylation 甲基化 of DNA and modification of histones (acetylation) pack the DNA out of the transcription machinery's reach. Failures matter: a methylated tumour-suppressor gene cannot hold cell division in check; imprinting errors explain Prader–Willi syndrome.
The study of changes in gene activity associated with mechanisms such as DNA methylation or chromatin modification without changing the DNA base sequence.
methylation
Addition of methyl groups; DNA methylation can affect gene expression.
transcription factor/trænˈskrɪpʃn ˈfæktə/
A protein that binds specific DNA sequences or interacts with transcription machinery to regulate gene expression.
The resting neurone pumps Na⁺ out and K⁺ in (the sodium-potassium pump 钠钾泵), holding an interior at about −70 mV. A stimulus past threshold 阈值 (about −55 mV) opens sodium channels: an all-or-nothing 全或无 action potential spikes to +30 mV, then potassium channels repolarise; the refractory period 不应期 prevents backward travel and sets a maximum frequency.
In myelinated 有髓 neurones the impulse jumps node to node (saltatory conduction 跳跃传导) — far faster. At the synapse 突触, calcium entry triggers vesicles of neurotransmitter to fuse with the presynaptic membrane; the transmitter diffuses and binds postsynaptic receptors; enzymes then clear the gap. Drugs act here: SSRIs block serotonin re-uptake, so the signal persists; lidocaine blocks sodium channels; ecstasy (MDMA) floods the cleft with serotonin then depletes it.
The nervous system divides: CNS (brain, spinal cord) and PNS — somatic (voluntary) and autonomic (involuntary; sympathetic accelerates, parasympathetic calms). Receptors are transducers: rods (dim light, many per bipolar cell — sensitivity), cones (colour, one-to-one — acuity), plus thermoreceptors, chemoreceptors, baroreceptors, nociceptors 伤害感受器 (pain). The spinal reflex arc 反射弧 passes sensory → relay → motor neurone in the cord's grey matter — fast, involuntary, protective. Habituation 习惯化 is a decreasing response to a repeated harmless stimulus.
Phytochrome 光敏色素 flips between Pr (absorbs red) and Pfr (absorbs far-red); sunlight's red bias leaves Pfr dominant, controlling germination and flowering by day length. Auxin 生长素 elongates cells by acidifying walls; gibberellins 赤霉素 induce enzymes (amylase in the aleurone layer) that mobilise starch in germination.
Landmarks and jobs: cerebral hemispheres 大脑半球 (voluntary, thought), cerebellum 小脑 (coordination, balance), hypothalamus and pituitary 垂体 below them (homeostasis, hormones), medulla oblongata (heart, breathing). MRI shows structure; fMRI shows activity via oxygenated-blood flow; CT fast structural scans; PET metabolism with radioactive tracers.
Chemistry first: Parkinson's is a dopamine 多巴胺 deficit — treated with L-Dopa, which crosses the blood-brain barrier and is converted to dopamine in the brain. Low serotonin links to depression — the target of SSRIs.
Statements 8.20-8.21 (spec p.39): microarrays to identify active genes (mRNA hybridisation); the term bioinformatics and its use in comparing DNA sequences between species and individuals; the risks and benefits of GM organisms in agriculture and medicine; applications such as recombinant human growth hormone and fluorescent zebrafish.
แหล่งที่มา: หลักสูตร Cambridge International
English
Recombinant DNA 重组DNA: a restriction enzyme 限制性内切酶 cuts DNA at its recognition sequence, leaving sticky ends 黏性末端; the human gene (made without introns from mRNA) is spliced into a plasmid 质粒 with DNA ligase 连接酶; the plasmid transforms host bacteria; marker genes (antibiotic resistance or fluorescence) select the cells that took it up. Scale up in a fermenter and the bacteria secrete human insulin 胰岛素 — cleaner and safer than extracting from pigs. GM animals make human proteins in milk; risks and benefits of GM crops (resistance, yields versus gene flow to wild relatives) are the standard evaluation.
Microarrays 微阵列 identify active genes: sample mRNA hybridises to complementary probes on the chip; spots that fluoresce mark genes being transcribed. Bioinformatics 生物信息学 compares sequences across species and individuals — how relatedness is now measured.
The use of computing to store, analyse and compare biological data such as DNA sequences.
insulin/ˈɪnsjuːlɪn/
A hormone produced by pancreatic beta cells that helps lower blood glucose concentration.
ligase/ˈlɪɡeɪs/
An enzyme that joins molecules by forming a new chemical bond, as in joining DNA fragments.
Microarrays
A surface carrying many known molecular probes used to test numerous sample targets in parallel.
plasmid/ˈplæzmɪd/
A usually circular DNA molecule that replicates separately from a cell’s main chromosome; engineered plasmids can carry inserted genes as vectors.
Recombinant DNA/ˌriːˈkɒmbɪnənt ˌdiː en ˈeɪ/
DNA made by joining genetic material from different sources.
restriction enzyme
An enzyme cutting DNA at a specific base sequence.
sticky ends/ˈstɪki endz/
Short single-stranded DNA overhangs that can pair with complementary overhangs.
5.11 5.12
ตรวจสอบตัวเอง
English
Name the stage of respiration occurring in the mitochondrial matrix and one of its inputs.
A runner's muscles produce lactate. Explain why, and what happens to the lactate afterwards.
Myosin heads cannot detach without ATP. Explain what this means for muscles after death.
Calculate cardiac output for stroke volume 85 cm³ and heart rate 140 min⁻¹.
Explain why the afferent arteriole is wider than the efferent arteriole.
State two differences between negative and positive feedback, with one example of each.
Why does myelination increase conduction speed?
An axon's threshold is −55 mV. A stimulus moves it to −60 mV. What happens, and why?
Red light converts phytochrome to which form?
Explain why L-Dopa is given instead of dopamine itself.
A microarray spot fluoresces strongly. What does that show?
Why must the human insulin gene be made from mRNA rather than from genomic DNA when inserting into bacteria?
Answers: 1 the link reaction (or Krebs cycle) — input pyruvate (or acetyl); 2 oxygen is short so reduced NAD is recycled by reducing pyruvate to lactate; afterwards lactate goes to the liver and is converted back to glucose, using oxygen; 3 without ATP the myosin stays bound to actin — rigor mortis; 4 $85 \times 140 = 11\,900\ \text{cm}^3\,\text{min}^{-1} = 11.9\ \text{dm}^3\,\text{min}^{-1}$; 5 the pressure difference drives ultrafiltration of plasma into Bowman's capsule; 6 negative returns a variable toward its set point (thermoregulation); positive pushes it further away (fever rising); 7 the impulse jumps between nodes of Ranvier instead of depolarising the whole membrane — fewer, bigger steps; 8 nothing — threshold is not reached, so no action potential (all-or-nothing); 9 Pfr; 10 dopamine cannot cross the blood-brain barrier but L-Dopa can, and is converted to dopamine inside the brain; 11 that gene was being actively transcribed — its mRNA was present and hybridised; 12 bacteria cannot splice introns, so the gene must come from mature mRNA that already lacks them.
Planning like a scientist, writing like an examiner
English
WBI16 is the last Biology paper you will sit, and it looks like no other: one question may hand you a half-complete statistics table, another asks you to design a whole investigation from a hypothesis you did not choose. Everything comes from the practical work of Units 4 and 5 — respirometers, spirometers, quadrats, dilution plates — but now you must plan, measure, present, test and conclude at IA2 depth.
WBI16/01 Practical Skills in Biology II is 1 hour 20 minutes, 50 marks, all compulsory. The specification's assessed list matches Unit 3's, with one difference in emphasis: plan whole investigations, analyse data and evaluate results and methodology — a 16-mark plan question closes the paper, and statistics enter: standard deviations, null hypotheses and a correlation coefficient with critical values.
6.2
The IA2 core practicals (Topics 5–8)
English
Core practical
Method core
What is measured
10 Photosynthesis rate
Aquatic plant under light of varied intensity/wavelength, temperature, CO₂ supply; gas collected over time
Gas volume per time; rate and limiting-factor plateaus
11 Ecology of a habitat
Quadrats and transects; abiotic 非生物 factors measured at each site
Distribution and abundance; means with spread
12 Development rate
Seedling growth or brine-shrimp hatching at different temperatures, ethical use of organisms
Growth/hatch rate per temperature
13 Liquid-culture growth
Microorganism grown in broth; samples over time, safe and ethical use
Growth curve by cell count, mass or turbidity
14 Antibiotics on bacteria
Aseptic plating; antibiotic discs or plant extracts on a seeded lawn; incubate inverted below 30 °C
Non-living factors of an environment, such as temperature or pH.
redox indicator
A substance that changes colour according to its oxidation state, allowing oxidation–reduction changes to be followed.
6.1
The 16-mark plan, taken apart
English
The closing question (2025: fitness programmes and recovery time) pays out in named blocks — answer in the same order. Ethics 伦理: informed consent of volunteers; no one is forced to participate. Safety: sterilise or replace the mouthpiece between students (infection); check volunteers are healthy enough for the exercise. Method, nine marks: two groups (with and without the fitness programme); the dependent variable stated as the time for the breathing rate and tidal volume to return to resting values; apparatus used in detail — soda lime in the canister, nose clip, practise breaths first; find the resting values first; the same standardised exercise for everyone; two control variables and the method of control for one; repeats giving means and standard deviations. Recording and analysis: a table of raw times with headings and units from which means are calculated; a bar graph of mean recovery time per group (two groups) tested with a t-test t检验, or a line/scatter graph (several fitness levels) tested with a correlation test. Limitations: volunteers' lives outside the experiment cannot be fully controlled; apparatus difficulties (leaks, soda lime exhausted, abnormal breathing through a mouthpiece).
Principles used to judge whether decisions and behaviour are responsible, fair or morally acceptable.
t-test/tiː test/
A statistical test using a t-distribution to assess an appropriate hypothesis about means under stated assumptions.
6.1 6.2
Sampling a habitat fairly
English
Random sampling has a method: lay a grid over the area, generate random coordinate pairs (random numbers, or numbers drawn from a bag), and only then visit those points with the quadrat. Saying "sample at random" earns nothing. Record the abiotic variables that matter — soil pH, moisture, minerals, light intensity, season — and control what you can by choosing matched sites. A photograph's magnification 放大倍数 is image ÷ actual: an earthworm 5.0 cm in a photograph and 13.5 cm real gives ×0.37 — photographs can be smaller than life.
The ratio of an image's size to the corresponding actual size of the object.
6.2
Counting the uncountable
English
A drop of soil suspension holds too many bacteria to count, so dilution plating 稀释倒板法 justifies each step: serially dilute the culture (1 part + 9 parts water, repeated) because raw samples are too numerous to count; spread a known volume on agar to make a lawn so that bacteria are separated into individual colonies; incubate for a fixed time and temperature so that colonies become visible; work aseptically to avoid contamination and counting errors. Count the plate with 30–300 colonies and multiply back by the dilution factor.
Diluting a microbial sample and culturing measured volumes on agar to estimate viable cell concentration from colony counts.
6.3
Statistics I: standard deviation
English
The formula is supplied; the skill is completing the table. For five sites with masses 18.1, 19.7, 16.2, 13.8, 17.1 g (mean 17.0): each deviation $(X - \bar{X})$ is squared — 1.21, 7.29, 0.64, 10.24, 0.01 — summed $\sum(X-\bar{X})^2 = 19.39$, divided by $n - 1 = 4$:
To compare two groups, plot mean ± SD (error bars): if the bars do not overlap, the difference is likely significant — properly, a t-test decides.
6.3
Statistics II: Spearman's rank and the null hypothesis
English
Null hypothesis 零假设: "there is no correlation between the percentage of oil remaining and the time stored." Rank both variables (largest = 1), find each difference $d$ and square it, then:
Compare the magnitude (0.857, ignore the sign for the comparison) with the critical value 临界值 at $p = 0.05$ for $n = 7$ (0.786). Calculated exceeds critical, so reject the null hypothesis: there is a significant negative correlation between oil remaining and time. Write all three sentences — comparison, reject, conclusion.
Choosing the test: difference between two group means → t-test (bar chart); association between two measured variables → correlation (scatter or line graph). Never a t-test on a correlation question.
A boundary value separating a hypothesis test's rejection region from its non-rejection region.
Null hypothesis/nʌl haɪˈpɒθəsɪs/
The default claim about a population parameter that a statistical test assesses against an alternative.
6.3
Graphs that decide marks
English
The oil-decay graph is a line graph — time is continuous — with labelled axes and units (days; mean % oil left), linear scales, points plotted exactly, and a single best-fit line. The 90-day reading (0.65 %) sits above every neighbour: it is anomalous. The best fit ignores it; you check it by repeating that sampling, never delete it silently.
6.3
What written practice cannot do
English
As with Unit 3: a perfect written plan does not demonstrate that you performed aseptic technique, read a spirometer trace live, or handled organisms ethically in the room. Those competences are built in class while studying Units 4 and 5; this paper examines the thinking around them.
6.3
ตรวจสอบตัวเอง
English
Name two artificial hydrogen carriers usable in CP15, and state what happens to their colour as yeast respires.
Write a null hypothesis for: "the number of bacteria in soil increases as crude oil is broken down."
Masses 18.1, 19.7, 16.2, 13.8, 17.1 g. Compute $\sum(X-\bar{X})^2$ and the standard deviation.
Ranks give $\sum d^2 = 104$ with $n = 7$. Calculate $r_s$ and state the conclusion against the 0.05 critical value 0.786.
In the oil-decay table, which reading is anomalous, and what two things do you do about it?
State two abiotic variables (not temperature) affecting an earthworm study and one method of control.
A plan compares two groups' recovery times. Which graph and which statistical test? What changes if five fitness levels are compared?
Give the two ethical/safety points the spirometer plan must include before any practical work.
Justify "serially dilute the culture" and "spread on agar to make a lawn" in dilution plating.
An earthworm is 13.5 cm long and appears 5.4 cm in a photograph. Calculate the magnification.
Answers: 1 TTC, methylene blue or DCPIP; they lose colour (decolourise) as they accept hydrogen/electrons from respiration; 2 there is no correlation between the number of bacteria and the amount of crude oil broken down (equivalently, the correlation coefficient is zero); 3 deviations −0.1…; $\sum(X-\bar{X})^2$ = 1.21 + 7.29 + 0.64 + 10.24 + 0.01 = 19.39; $s = \sqrt{19.39/4} = 2.2$ g; 4 $r_s = 1 - 624/336 = -0.857$; 0.857 > 0.786, reject the null hypothesis: significant negative correlation; 5 the 90-day value (0.65 %): the best-fit line ignores it, and it is checked by repeating that measurement; 6 any two of soil pH, moisture, minerals, light intensity, season; control e.g. measure soil moisture at each site and compare only matched sites; 7 bar graph of means and a t-test; with five levels, a scatter/line graph and a correlation test; 8 informed consent of volunteers (no compulsion); sterilise or replace the mouthpiece to prevent infection; 9 dilution reduces bacterial numbers because the raw sample has too many to count; the lawn separates individual bacteria so each forms a countable colony; 10 $5.4/13.5 = 0.40$ (×0.4).