Chemical energetics

Burning wood is exothermic, releasing heat to the surroundings.

In every chemical reaction, energy is transferred. The reaction is either exothermic or endothermic, depending on which way the energy moves.

• An exothermic reaction 放热反应 gives out thermal energy 热能 to the surroundings 环境. So the temperature of the surroundings goes up.
• An endothermic reaction 吸热反应 takes in thermal energy from the surroundings. So the temperature of the surroundings goes down.

Examples of exothermic reactions are combustion 燃烧 (burning a fuel) and neutralisation 中和 (an acid reacting with an alkali). An example of an endothermic reaction is the thermal decomposition 分解 of a compound (breaking it down using heat).

An exothermic reaction warms the surroundings; an endothermic reaction cools them

The amount of thermal energy transferred in a reaction is called the enthalpy change 焓变. It is written as $\Delta H$ and has these signs:

• $\Delta H$ is negative for an exothermic reaction, because energy leaves the chemicals.
• $\Delta H$ is positive for an endothermic reaction, because energy is taken in.

Particles do not react every time they meet. The activation energy 活化能 ($E_a$) is the smallest amount of energy that colliding 碰撞 particles 粒子 must have before they can react. It is like a hill the particles must get over before the reaction can happen.

A reaction pathway diagram 反应进程图 shows how the energy changes as a reaction happens. Energy is on the vertical axis, and the progress of the reaction is on the horizontal axis.

• The line starts at the energy level of the reactants 反应物.
• It rises over a 'hill' — the height of this hill is the activation energy $E_a$.
• It then falls or rises to the energy level of the products 生成物.
• The gap between the reactant level and the product level is the enthalpy change $\Delta H$.

For an exothermic reaction, the products are lower than the reactants, so energy is given out and $\Delta H$ is negative.

For an endothermic reaction, the products are higher than the reactants, so energy is taken in and $\Delta H$ is positive.

Exothermic reactions end lower than they start ($\Delta H<0$); endothermic reactions end higher ($\Delta H>0$)

Breaking and making bonds transfers energy — the flame supplies it here.

A reaction involves breaking the bonds in the reactants and making new bonds in the products.

• Bond breaking 断键 takes in energy, so it is an endothermic step.
• Bond making 成键 gives out energy, so it is an exothermic step.

The bond energy 键能 is the energy needed to break one mole of a particular bond. You can use bond energies to find the enthalpy change:

If more energy is given out making bonds than is taken in breaking bonds, the reaction is exothermic ($\Delta H$ negative). If less energy is given out, it is endothermic ($\Delta H$ positive).

Worked example

For the reaction $\text{H}_2 + \text{Cl}_2 \rightarrow 2\text{HCl}$, use these bond energies (in kJ/mol): H–H $= 436$, Cl–Cl $= 242$, H–Cl $= 431$.

Bonds broken: one H–H and one Cl–Cl $= 436 + 242 = 678$.

Bonds made: two H–Cl $= 2 \times 431 = 862$.

The answer is negative, so this reaction is exothermic.

Breaking bonds takes energy in ($+678$); making bonds gives more out ($-862$); so $\Delta H = -184$ kJ/mol

• Exothermic gives out heat, so the surroundings warm up and $\Delta H$ is negative; endothermic takes in heat, so the surroundings cool and $\Delta H$ is positive.
• Bond breaking takes energy in (endothermic); bond making gives energy out (exothermic). Use $\Delta H = (\text{energy to break bonds}) - (\text{energy released making bonds})$.
• If more energy is released making bonds than is used breaking them, the reaction is exothermic. Always check the sign of your final answer.
• On a reaction pathway diagram, an exothermic reaction ends lower than it starts; an endothermic one ends higher. The height of the hill is the activation energy.