Social Psychology and Personality
AP Psychology Topic 4 10:24 English narration · English + 中文 subtitles burned in
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Transcript
A driver cuts in front of you and you decide they are rude.
有个司机加塞到你前面，你断定他很没礼貌。
Later you cut in front of someone, and you know exactly why: you were late, and the other lane was stopped.
后来你加塞到别人前面，而你很清楚原因： 你迟到了，而另一条车道又堵死了。
Same behaviour, two completely different explanations.
同样的行为，两种完全不同的解释。
That gap has a name, and it is the first thing this unit teaches.
这个落差是有名字的，也是这一单元教的第一件事。
Social psychology asks how people think about, influence and relate to others, and it begins with attribution.
社会心理学研究人们如何思考他人、影响他人、与他人相处，而它从归因开始。
There are two ways to explain any behaviour.
解释任何行为都有两种方式。
A dispositional attribution puts the cause inside the person: their character, their personality.
性格归因把原因放在人的内部：他的品性、他的性格。
A situational attribution puts it in the circumstances.
情境归因把原因放在环境里。
When we explain other people we lean too hard on disposition and not hard enough on situation, and that is the fundamental attribution error.
当我们解释别人时，太偏向性格，太不看重情境， 这就是基本归因错误。
Notice the direction. It is about explaining others.
注意方向：它讲的是解释"别人"。
When the question is about explaining yourself, the answer is usually self-serving bias: my success was my ability, my failure was bad luck.
当问题是解释"自己"时，答案通常是自利偏差： 成功是我的能力，失败是运气不好。
One more habit belongs beside these.
还有一个习惯要放在旁边。
A person's explanatory style is how they account for a setback: an optimistic style calls it temporary and local, a pessimistic style calls it permanent and about them.
一个人的解释风格，就是他如何解释挫折： 乐观的风格说它是暂时的、局部的，悲观的风格说它是长久的、是关于自己的。
The fundamental attribution error has neighbours.
基本归因错误还有几个近亲。
Actor-observer bias is the pair in one person: you explain yourself by the situation and everyone else by their character.
行动者-观察者偏差是同一个人身上的一对： 你用情境解释自己，却用性格解释别人。
The just-world phenomenon is the belief that people get what they deserve, which is why a victim is sometimes blamed.
公正世界现象是相信人得到了自己应得的， 所以受害者有时会被责怪。
Two more effects sit in person perception.
还有两个效应属于对人的知觉。
Mere exposure means repeated contact increases liking.
单纯曝光是指反复接触会增加好感。
A self-fulfilling prophecy is an expectation that causes the behaviour that confirms it.
自我实现预言是一种预期，它真的促成了它所预期的行为。
And social comparison is judging yourself against others: upward comparison looks at people above you, downward comparison looks at people below you.
社会比较是拿自己和别人比： 向上比较看比你强的人，向下比较看比你弱的人。
A stereotype is a generalised idea about a group.
刻板印象是对一个群体的概括性看法。
Prejudice is the attitude that follows, and discrimination is the behaviour.
偏见是随之而来的态度，歧视则是行为。
Implicit attitudes are held without full awareness, so a person can sincerely reject a prejudice and still show it.
内隐态度是在不完全察觉的情况下持有的， 所以一个人可以真心反对某种偏见，却仍然表现出来。
Attitudes resist change in two named ways.
态度抵抗改变，有两种有名字的方式。
Belief perseverance keeps a belief alive even after the evidence for it is discredited.
信念固着让一个信念在证据被推翻之后仍然活着。
Confirmation bias is seeking evidence that fits what you already believe, and ignoring the rest.
确认偏差是只找符合已有信念的证据，其余的都忽略。
Other people change what we do.
别人会改变我们的行为。
Social facilitation is the effect of an audience, and its direction depends entirely on the task.
社会助长是观众带来的效应，它的方向完全取决于任务。
On a simple or well practised task, being watched improves performance.
在简单或熟练的任务上，被人注视会让表现变好。
On a difficult one, being watched makes it worse.
在困难的任务上，被人注视会让表现变差。
So an answer must say which kind of task the scenario describes, or it earns nothing.
所以答案必须说清楚情境描述的是哪一类任务，否则拿不到分。
Two more effects get confused.
还有两个效应常被混淆。
Conformity is matching a group of peers, and obedience is following an authority.
从众是与同伴保持一致，服从是听从权威。
One is horizontal, one is vertical.
一个是横向的，一个是纵向的。
Why do people conform?
人为什么从众？
Normative social influence is conforming to be accepted.
规范性社会影响是为了被接纳而从众。
Informational social influence is conforming because you think others know better.
信息性社会影响是因为你觉得别人更懂。
Persuasion itself has two routes in the elaboration likelihood model.
说服本身在精细加工可能性模型里有两条路径。
The central route uses the strength of the argument.
中心路径靠的是论据的力度。
The peripheral route uses cues such as attractiveness.
边缘路径靠的是吸引力之类的线索。
Sequential techniques matter too.
先后顺序也很要紧。
Foot-in-the-door starts with a small request, then a larger one.
登门槛效应先提一个小请求，再提一个更大的。
Door-in-the-face starts with an unreasonable request, then a smaller one that now looks reasonable.
留面子效应先提一个不合理的请求，再提一个看起来合理的小请求。
Groups change effort and judgement.
群体会改变努力和判断。
Social loafing is reduced individual effort when work is shared.
社会惰化是工作被分担时个人努力下降。
Deindividuation is loss of self-awareness in a crowd.
去个体化是在人群中失去自我觉察。
Group polarization pushes a group's average view further in its original direction.
群体极化把群体的平均观点往原来的方向推得更远。
Groupthink is the suppression of dissent to keep harmony.
群体思维是为了维持和谐而压制异议。
People also help less as the number of onlookers rises: that is the bystander effect, and the mechanism is diffusion of responsibility.
旁观者越多，人越不帮忙：这就是旁观者效应，机制是责任分散。
Altruism is selfless helping; prosocial behaviour may also benefit the helper.
利他行为是无私的帮助；亲社会行为也可能让帮助者自己受益。
Superordinate goals — shared aims that need cooperation — reduce hostility between groups.
超级目标——需要合作才能达到的共同目标——能减少群体之间的敌意。
Individualism and collectivism shape all of this, and so does multiculturalism.
个人主义与集体主义塑造着这一切，多元文化主义也是。
The false consensus effect is overestimating how many people agree with you.
虚假一致效应是高估有多少人同意你。
Attitudes and behaviour usually agree.
态度和行为通常是一致的。
When they do not, the person feels an uncomfortable conflict, and psychologists call it cognitive dissonance.
当它们不一致时，人会感到一种不舒服的冲突， 心理学家称之为认知失调。
The exam wants two things: name the conflict, and say which side changes.
考试要的是两件事：说出冲突是什么，以及哪一边改变了。
Almost always the attitude changes, not the behaviour, and the reason is simple.
几乎总是态度改变，而不是行为，原因很简单。
The behaviour has already happened.
行为已经发生了。
You cannot un-do it, so the cheaper repair is to decide you meant to do it.
你没法把它收回来，于是更省力的修补办法， 就是认定自己本来就想这么做。
The psychodynamic approach holds that unconscious processes drive personality.
精神动力学取向认为，无意识过程驱动着人格。
Ego defense mechanisms protect the person from anxiety.
自我防御机制保护人免于焦虑。
Eight are examinable: denial, displacement, projection, rationalization, reaction formation, regression, repression, and sublimation.
有八种是要考的：否认、转移、投射、合理化、反向形成、退行、压抑、升华。
Learn them as a set.
把它们当成一套来记。
This approach assesses personality with projective tests, which present an ambiguous stimulus.
这一取向用投射测验来评估人格，测验给出的是模糊刺激。
They have weak reliability and weak validity, so a score on one is not strong evidence.
它们的信度和效度都弱，所以一个分数算不上有力的证据。
The humanistic approach focuses on growth.
人本主义取向关注成长。
It emphasises unconditional positive regard — being valued without conditions — and self-actualization, becoming the fullest version of oneself.
它强调无条件积极关注——不被附加条件地被重视——以及自我实现， 成为最完整的自己。
The social-cognitive approach explains personality through reciprocal determinism: the person, their behaviour, and the environment each influence the other two.
社会认知取向用交互决定论解释人格： 人、行为和环境，每一方都影响另外两方。
Self-efficacy is belief in one's own ability to succeed at a task.
自我效能感是相信自己能做成一件具体的事。
Locus of control is internal when you believe outcomes come from you, and external when you believe they come from luck or other people.
控制点在内部，是你相信结果来自自己； 在外部，是你相信结果来自运气或别人。
Personality can be described as stable dimensions, and the standard set is the Big Five: openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness and neuroticism.
人格可以描述为一些稳定的维度，标准的一套是大五人格： 开放性、尽责性、外向性、宜人性、神经质。
A trait predicts behaviour on average across many situations, and not on any single occasion — so a quiet extravert in a library is not evidence against the trait.
特质预测的是在许多情境中的"平均"行为， 而不是某一次的行为—— 所以一个在图书馆里安静的外向者，并不能证明特质是错的。
Other approaches ask other questions.
其他取向问的是别的问题。
The psychodynamic approach explains behaviour by processes the person is unaware of.
精神动力学取向用当事人未曾察觉的过程来解释行为。
The humanistic approach explains it by the person's own drive to grow.
人本主义取向则用当事人自身的成长动力来解释。
Several theories explain what drives behaviour.
有几种理论解释行为的动力。
Drive-reduction theory says behaviour reduces a physical need to restore homeostasis.
驱力减少理论说，行为减少生理需要，以恢复内稳态。
Arousal theory says people seek an optimal level of arousal, and the Yerkes-Dodson law states that moderate arousal gives the best performance on most tasks.
唤醒理论说人会寻求一个最佳唤醒水平， 耶克斯-多德森定律指出，中等唤醒在大多数任务上给出最好的表现。
Self-determination theory separates intrinsic motivation, from within, from extrinsic motivation, from reward.
自我决定理论把来自内部的内在动机，和来自奖励的外在动机分开。
Incentive theory focuses on the pull of rewards.
诱因理论关注奖励的拉力。
Instincts are innate fixed patterns, seen more clearly in non-human animals.
本能是天生的固定模式，在非人类动物身上看得更清楚。
Lewin's motivational conflicts names three: approach-approach, approach-avoidance, and avoidance-avoidance.
勒温的动机冲突理论点出三种：双趋、趋避、双避。
Sensation-seeking theory explains differences in the need for novelty.
感觉寻求理论解释人对新奇的需要为何不同。
Eating shows both halves: Ghrelin turns hunger up and leptin turns it down, both regulated by the hypothalamus, while the sight of food and the time of day change how much people eat.
进食把两半都展示出来：胃饥饿素让饥饿上升，瘦素让它下降， 都由下丘脑调节；而食物的样子和一天中的时刻，也会改变吃多少。
Emotion, also called affect, combines physical arousal, expressive behaviour and conscious experience.
情绪，也叫情感，由生理唤醒、表情行为和主观体验三部分组成。
Three theories explain it, and they are not three different claims about what emotion is.
有三种理论解释它，它们并不是关于"情绪是什么"的三种不同主张。
James-Lange says the body comes first: you tremble, and then you feel afraid.
詹姆斯-兰格理论说身体在先：你先发抖，然后才感到害怕。
Cannon-Bard says they happen together: the trembling and the fear arrive at the same time.
坎农-巴德理论说两者同时发生：发抖和害怕同时到来。
And the Schachter-Singer two-factor theory says arousal comes first but you have to label it, so the same racing heart is fear in one situation and excitement in another.
而二因素理论说唤起在先，但你必须给它贴上标签， 所以同样的心跳加速，在一种情境里是恐惧，在另一种情境里是兴奋。
The difference between them is order.
三者的差别就在于顺序。
Get the order right and the theory names itself.
把顺序弄对，理论的名字自己就出来了。
Some facial expressions are recognised across cultures, but display rules — a culture's norms for showing emotion — and the events that trigger emotion both vary.
有些面部表情在不同文化中都能被认出来， 但表达规则——一种文化关于如何表现情绪的规范——以及触发情绪的事件，都会不同。
Broaden-and-build theory proposes that positive emotions widen thinking and build lasting resources.
拓展-建构理论提出，积极情绪会拓宽思维，并建立起持久的资源。
Here is a real exam question.
这是一道真题。
The two thousand twenty five Evidence-Based Question asked students to develop and justify an argument about whether the presence of others improves performance, then to explain how evidence from a source supports the claim using a course concept.
二零二五年的基于证据题要求学生就"他人在场是否提高表现"提出并论证一个主张， 再用课程概念说明来源中的证据如何支持该主张。
A full-mark answer supplies a concept, not a restatement of the source.
满分答案给出的是概念，而不是把材料再说一遍。
Quote the finding: participants performed better on the simple task when observed.
先引用发现：被试在被观察时，简单任务上表现更好。
Then name what it predicts: social facilitation predicts that an audience improves performance on simple or well practised tasks, and harms it on difficult ones.
再点出它预测了什么：社会助长预测，观众让简单或熟练的任务变好，让困难的任务变差。
The source matches the simple-task half of that prediction.
材料对应的是该预测里简单任务的那一半。
Re-describing the study alone does not earn the explanation point.
只把研究复述一遍，拿不到解释分。
Five things to take with you.
带走五点。
One: the attribution error is about explaining others; self-serving bias is about explaining yourself.
第一：归因错误讲的是解释别人，自利偏差讲的是解释自己。
Two: social facilitation depends on whether the task is simple or difficult, so say which.
第二：社会助长取决于任务是简单还是困难，所以要说清楚是哪一种。
Three: conformity is peers, obedience is authority.
第三：从众是同伴，服从是权威。
Four: in dissonance the attitude usually changes, because the behaviour already happened.
第四：在认知失调里，通常是态度改变，因为行为已经发生了。
Five: the emotion theories differ by order, not by content.
第五：情绪理论的差别在顺序，不在内容。
Now try the practice questions below.
现在去做下面的练习题。