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Random assignment reduces systematic confounding between groups. Volunteer recruitment may limit generalisability; assignment is not random sampling.

The bell becomes a conditioned stimulus in classical conditioning. Operant reinforcement depends on consequences of an action, rather than a predictive cue-food pairing alone.

Stable measurements support test-retest reliability. Systematic underestimation challenges the proposed interpretation; reliability does not establish validity.

Beyond one month the post-traumatic stress disorder pattern can apply; at ten days the matching classification is acute stress disorder.

The family history is the diathesis (pre-existing vulnerability); the job loss is the stress (later trigger). Neither factor establishes inevitability; their relation to risk is conditional.

People often improve without treatment through spontaneous remission and regression to the mean; the comparison condition separates treatment gain from the natural course.

Graduated exposure for the phobia; exposure with response prevention for the rituals; cognitive-behavioural restructuring plus behavioural activation for the depression.

Same test twice is test-retest reliability; two similar forms give alternate-forms reliability.

SEM=15×sqrt(1−.91)=15×0.3=4.5. IQ=100+15×2=130.

A between-subjects true experiment; one-way analysis of variance for the three group means.

Crossing lines indicate an interaction, meaning the effect of A depends on the level of B. Claiming A mattered overall requires a significant main effect of A.

8 g and 2 g. The just noticeable difference is a fraction of the baseline, not a fixed amount.

X is more sensitive — equal hits with fewer false alarms mean better separated distributions (higher d′). Y additionally uses a looser criterion.

The action potential is all-or-none once threshold is crossed at the axon hillock. Intensity is coded by firing rate and the number of active neurons.

An antagonist; D2 blockade is the mechanism of typical antipsychotics for positive symptoms of schizophrenia.

Sensorimotor (object permanence), preoperational (symbolic play, no conservation), concrete operational (conservation and reversible concrete operations), formal operational (controlled hypothesis testing).

Passing shows the child understands that others can hold false beliefs; deceptive lying presupposes modelling what another person believes.

Wundt at Leipzig and James at Harvard. Titchener analysed experience into elements by introspection (structuralism); James asked what mental processes are for (functionalism).

Maslow — hierarchy of needs and self-actualisation; Skinner — behaviour shaped by operant consequences; Bandura — observational learning and modelling; Beck — cognitive therapy targeting distorted thinking.

Negative reinforcement — the behaviour strengthens because an aversive state is removed or prevented. It is not punishment, which decreases behaviour.

Extinction (CS without US weakens the CR), then spontaneous recovery after a pause.

Primacy — early items are rehearsed into long-term memory; recency — the last items are still in the short-term store.

French intruding on Spanish is proactive interference (old disrupts new); Spanish erasing French is retroactive interference (new disrupts old).

Four morphemes (un, re, do, ing). Morphemes are meaning-bearing units; a morpheme can be one letter or several.

Categorical perception — continuous acoustic variation is perceived as discrete phoneme categories, so within-category differences are hard to hear.

Availability heuristic (ease of recall inflates judged frequency) and confirmation bias (seeking only supporting evidence).

Spearman proposed a single general factor g underlying test performance; Cattell separated fluid reasoning about novelty from crystallised learned knowledge.

The fundamental attribution error — disposition over situation for others. For ourselves the actor-observer asymmetry favours situational explanations.

The first is central-route persuasion, durable because arguments were evaluated; the second is peripheral-route, cue-based and fragile.

Social facilitation strengthens dominant (well-learned) responses and weakens novel ones. Tug-of-war shows social loafing when individual pulls are unidentifiable.

Diffusion of responsibility and pluralistic ignorance. A clearly identified single victim or a direct request to a specific person restores helping.

The bottleneck is central capacity, not occupied hands; multimode theory (Johnston and Heinz) moves the selection point with combined task demands.

Habituation (decline to repetition) and dishabituation (recovery to change). No stimulus pairing is involved, so they are non-associative.

rB>C: sibling case 0.5×6=3>2 pays; r=.25 gives 1.5<2, does not pay. Help is ordered by relatedness.

A fixed action pattern released by a sign stimulus; the oversized doorknob acts as a supernormal stimulus.

Generation > sentence fit > rhyme > letter counting. Levels of processing: depth and elaboration, not intention, build the trace.

When the test probes rhyme recognition. Transfer-appropriate processing: the encoding matching the retrieval demand wins.

Hypothalamus (CRH) to pituitary (ACTH) to adrenal cortex (cortisol); in parallel the sympathetic-adrenal-medullary path releases adrenaline within seconds.

Progesterone. Circulating hormone affects only cells carrying its receptor, so action is selective despite broadcast delivery.

Incidence 4,000/2,000,000 = 200 per 100,000 per year; prevalence 30,000/2,000,000 = 1.5%.

Case report, case-control (backward from outcome), cohort (forward from exposure), randomised trial, meta-analysis.