For nonzero real vectors u,v, u·v=|u||v| cos θ. A positive, zero or negative dot product corresponds to an acute, right or obtuse smaller angle. The scalar projection of v along u is (v·u)/|u|; its vector projection is ((v·u)/(u·u))u. The difference from this projection is orthogonal to u. Do not confuse a projected vector with its signed scalar component. The zero vector is orthogonal to every vector but has no defined angle direction.
3차원 벡터에서 u×v는 두 벡터 모두에 수직이며 길이는 |u||v| sin θ입니다. 좌표 계산은 (u₂v₃−u₃v₂, u₃v₁−u₁v₃, u₁v₂−u₂v₁)를 사용합니다. 이 길이는 사변형의 면적이므로 두 가장자리 벡터로 이루어진 삼각형의 면적은 그 절반입니다. 순서를 바꾸면 외적의 방향은 반대가 되지만 면적은 보존됩니다. 두 가장자리 벡터를 같은 꼭짓점에서 만들어야 하며, 서로 관련 없는 위치 벡터끼리 외적을 취하면 잘못된 삼각형을 측정하게 됩니다.
The plane through a point p with nonzero normal n has equation n·(x−p)=0. Distance from q to the plane is |n·(q−p)|/|n|; the denominator normalises the scale of the equation. A scalar triple product u·(v×w) gives signed parallelepiped volume; its absolute value is geometric volume. Zero triple product means dependence of the three edge vectors, not necessarily that each pair is perpendicular or parallel.
For four planar vectors, there are six unordered dot products. The configuration e₁,−e₁,e₂,−e₂ has two negative products and four zeros; e₁,e₁,e₂,e₂ has two positive products and four zeros. Four nonzero vectors cannot have every pairwise dot product negative. Order their directions around the circle: each consecutive angular gap would have to exceed 90°, forcing the sum of four gaps above 360°. A zero vector cannot rescue a strict-negative requirement, because its dot products vanish.