For P(B)>0, P(A|B)=P(A∩B)/P(B): restrict the population to B before computing the fraction in A. Independence means P(A∩B)=P(A)P(B), equivalently P(A|B)=P(A) when the denominator is nonzero. Mutually exclusive events with positive probabilities cannot be independent, because their joint probability is zero. Sampling without replacement usually changes later probabilities; a fixed denominator for successive draws would describe a different experiment.
결합 확률은 사전 범주 비율에 해당 조건부 확률을 곱하여 구축한다. D를 조건이고 +를 양의 결과라 할 때, P(D∩+)=P(D)P(+|D)이다. 전체 양의 확률은 P(D)P(+|D)+P(not D)P(+|not D)인데, 이들은 불교차하며 모든 양의 결과를 포괄하기 때문이다. 베이즈 정리는 첫 번째 결합 확률을 이 총량으로 나눈 값이다. 민감도는 P(+|D)이며, 특이도는 P(−|not D)이다. 위양성율은 특이도의 일의 차이다.
For a hypothetical test with prevalence 2%, sensitivity 90% and specificity 95%, use a population of 10,000 for clarity. Of 200 people with the condition, 180 test positive. Of 9,800 without it, 490 test positive. Therefore 180 of 670 positive results have the condition: posterior 18/67, about 26.9%. Reversing the conditional would give 90%, answering a different question. This is a mathematical model, not a recommendation about clinical decisions.
For independent identically distributed observations with finite variance σ², the sample mean has expectation μ and variance σ²/n; its standard error is σ/√n. This is spread of repeated sample means, not the spread of individual observations. Quadrupling n halves the standard error, rather than quartering it. Normal population data give an exactly normal mean; otherwise a central-limit approximation needs adequate conditions and sample size. Correlation invalidates the simple independent variance calculation.