Human resource management (A Level)

An organisational structure 组织结构 shows how a business arranges its people: who reports to whom, and who does what. A good structure makes roles clear and helps the firm meet its objectives. It is often drawn as an organisation chart.

• a hierarchy 层级 is the set of levels in a firm, from the top managers down to the shop-floor workers. A "tall" structure has many levels; a "flat" structure has few.
• the chain of command 指挥链 is the line along which orders pass down, from the top to the bottom.
• the span of control 管理幅度 is the number of staff one manager is directly in charge of. A wide span means many staff per manager; a narrow span means few.

An organisation chart shows the chain of command and each manager's span of control

A tall structure has narrow spans and a long chain of command, so messages travel slowly. A flat structure has wide spans, so managers must trust staff more.

Tall structures have many levels and narrow spans; flat structures have few levels and wide spans

• centralisation 集权 — most decisions are made at the top. This gives strong control and quick, consistent decisions, but ignores local knowledge.
• decentralisation 分权 — decisions are shared out to lower levels and local branches. This speeds up decisions and motivates staff, but control is weaker.

Centralised: the top decides. Decentralised: branches decide

Most firms sit somewhere between the two.

Delayering 精简层级 means removing one or more levels of management. It cuts cost and shortens the chain of command, but it gives the remaining managers more to do.

A matrix structure 矩阵结构 groups staff by both their department and the project they work on, so a worker may report to two managers. It is good for teamwork across departments, but the two-boss system can cause confusion.

In a matrix structure a worker reports to two managers — a function manager and a project manager

Delegation 授权 means a manager gives a task, and the power to do it, to a more junior worker. It frees the manager's time, develops staff, and motivates them.

Delegation passes the task and authority down; accountability stays up

But a manager who delegates is still accountable — the accountability 问责 for the result stays with them. So managers must delegate to people they trust, and still check the outcome.

Worked example. A firm has 5 levels of hierarchy and a span of control of 4. It delayers to a span of 8. What changes, and what is the risk? A wider span means each manager handles more subordinates, so fewer managers are needed at each level and the structure becomes flatter and wider. Communication improves, because a message now passes through fewer levels, and the wage bill falls. The risks are real too: each manager now supervises 8 people instead of 4, so there is less time per subordinate and weaker control; workloads rise; and the staff who remain lose promotion rungs, which can demotivate. Link the span of control to the number of levels - for the same workforce, a wider span always gives a flatter structure - and present the trade-off as speed and cost against control and supervision.

Communication 沟通 is the passing of a message from one person to another. Effective communication follows a clear path:

• a sender 发送者 has a message.
• the message is sent through a medium 媒介 (e.g. a meeting, email or notice).
• a receiver 接收者 takes in the message.
• feedback 反馈 shows the message was understood.

The message flows from sender to receiver, and feedback confirms it was understood

Good communication raises motivation, cuts mistakes, and speeds up decisions. Methods can be verbal (spoken), written, or visual; the best method depends on the message, the cost, and the need for a record.

A barrier 障碍 is anything that stops a message getting through clearly. Common barriers are:

• a message that is too long or unclear.
• a poor medium (e.g. a noisy phone line).
• too many levels in the hierarchy, so the message is changed on the way.
• language or cultural differences, and lack of trust.

To improve communication, a firm can shorten the chain of command, choose the right medium, keep messages short and clear, and always ask for feedback.

Leaders set direction and motivate people, which shapes the whole organisation.

A leadership style 领导风格 is the way a leader 领导 makes decisions and treats staff. Four styles are:

The styles form a continuum: autocratic keeps all control with the leader, while laissez-faire gives staff the most freedom

No style is always best. The right one depends on the task, the staff, and the time available — an urgent crisis may need an autocratic style, while skilled staff may work best under a democratic or laissez-faire one.

Emotional intelligence 情商 is a leader's skill in understanding their own and other people's feelings, and managing them well. Leaders with high emotional intelligence build trust and handle conflict better.

This matters most when leading change. People often resist change because they fear losing their job or status. A good leader explains why the change is needed, involves staff, and supports them through it.

There are two broad approaches to human resource management 人力资源管理 (HRM):

• hard HRM 硬性人力资源管理 treats staff as a resource like any other — to be used at the lowest cost. It uses tight control and short-term contracts.
• soft HRM 软性人力资源管理 treats staff as the firm's most valuable asset — to be developed and motivated. It uses training, involvement and long-term careers.

Both link to workforce planning 人力规划: working out the staff the firm will need, and how to get them.

The management of change 变革管理 works best when employer-employee relations 劳资关系 (the link between bosses and workers) are good.

A trade union 工会 is an organised group of workers that speaks for its members. Through collective bargaining 集体谈判, the union and the employer negotiate pay and conditions for the whole group, instead of one worker at a time. If talks fail, workers may take industrial action 劳工行动, such as a strike 罢工 (stopping work). Good relations and fair negotiation avoid this and keep the business running.

• Read an organisation chart: span of control, chain of command and levels of hierarchy.
• Compare tall vs flat structures and centralisation vs decentralisation (tight control vs local responsiveness).
• Distinguish hard vs soft HRM (workers as a cost versus as an asset).
• Explain how trade unions and good communication shape employer-employee relations.