النظريات التنموية والمراحل الرئيسية
GRE Subject Test · GRE Psychology الموضوع 14 4:22 سرد باللغة الإنجليزية · ترجمة مدمجة بالإنجليزية + الصينية
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Assimilation uses an existing scheme; accommodation changes the scheme when it does not fit.
同化利用现有图式；顺应则在图式不适用时改变该图式。
Conservation tasks examine whether a transformation changes a quantity, not merely whether children use an adult word.
守恒任务考察的是转换是否改变了数量，而不仅仅是儿童是否使用了成人的词汇。
In a supported-learning account, distinguish a prompt that organizes a child's reasoning from a prompt that supplies the answer.
在支架式学习理论中，需区分旨在组织儿童思维的提示与直接提供答案的提示。
Attachment observations concern relationship-specific behaviour under a protocol, not an adult personality diagnosis.
依恋观察关注的是特定关系下的行为表现，而非对成人的人格诊断。
Piaget's stages are defined by what a child can do.
皮亚杰的阶段由儿童能做什么来定义。
Sensorimotor (birth to about 2): object permanence.
感知运动阶段，从出生到大约2岁，涉及客体永久性。
Preoperational (about 2 to 7): symbolic play but egocentrism and failure of conservation.
前运算阶段，从大约2岁到7岁，涉及象征性游戏，但也存在自我中心主义和守恒失败。
Concrete operational (about 7 to 11): conservation and reversible operations on concrete material.
具体运算阶段，从大约7岁到11岁，涉及守恒以及对具体材料的可逆操作。
Formal operational (about 11 up): hypothetico-deductive reasoning, as in the pendulum task, where the solver holds one factor constant while varying another.
形式运算阶段，从大约11岁开始，涉及假设演绎推理，例如在单摆任务中，解题者保持一个因素不变而改变另一个因素。
Ages are approximate; the reasoning profile defines the stage.
年龄是近似的；推理模式决定阶段。
Kohlberg ordered moral reasoning into preconventional (consequences to self), conventional (approval and rules) and postconventional (principles) levels.
科尔伯格将道德推理分为前习俗水平（自我后果）、习俗水平（认可与规则）和后习俗水平（原则）。
Erikson framed eight lifespan psychosocial crises, from trust versus mistrust in infancy to integrity versus despair in late adulthood; identity versus role confusion belongs to adolescence.
埃里克森提出了八个贯穿一生的心理社会危机，从婴儿期的信任对不信任，到成年晚期的完善对绝望；同一性对角色混乱属于青春期。
Stage theories describe common sequences, not fixed timetables.
阶段理论描述的是普遍的发展序列，而非固定的时间表。
Attachment research uses the strange situation: secure infants use the caregiver as a base and are comforted at reunion; avoidant infants keep distance; resistant (ambivalent) infants cling yet are not easily comforted. Caregiver sensitivity predicts the pattern, and early patterns relate to later relationships without determining them. Theory of mind is understanding that others hold beliefs, including false ones.
依恋研究使用陌生情境法。 安全型婴儿将照顾者作为基地，在重聚时得到安抚。 回避型婴儿保持距离。 反抗型（或矛盾型）婴儿紧紧依偎却不易被安抚。 照顾者的敏感性可以预测依恋模式，早期模式与后期关系相关但并不决定后期关系。 心理理论是指理解他人拥有信念的能力，包括错误的信念。
The false-belief task is its standard test: a child who expects a searcher to look where the object really is, rather than where the searcher saw it, has not yet passed.
错误信念任务是其标准测试。 如果一个孩子预期寻找者会在物体实际所在的位置寻找，而不是在寻找者看到它的位置寻找，那么该孩子尚未通过测试。
Intentional lying presupposes modelling what another person believes, so deceptive lying marks a change in mental representation.
有意撒谎预设了模拟他人信念的能力，因此欺骗性撒谎标志着心理表征发生了变化。
A child calls every four-legged animal a dog, then creates a separate category for cats after contrasting examples.
儿童将每只四足动物都称为狗，随后通过对比示例为猫创建了独立类别。
Explain the two processes.
请解释这两个过程。
Using the existing dog category for a cat illustrates assimilation.
用现有的狗的类别来指代猫，体现了同化。
Revising categories to distinguish cats illustrates accommodation.
修正类别以区分猫，体现了顺应。
The example concerns changing classification, not proof of a particular stage or the child's general intelligence.
此例涉及分类方式的改变，而非证明某一特定阶段或该儿童的总体智力水平。
Ask for the child's reasoning and test new examples.
请询问儿童的推理过程，并用新示例进行测试。
Piaget defined each stage by how the child reasons, with approximate ages.
皮亚杰按儿童的推理方式划分阶段，年龄只是大致范围。
Read the labels before drawing a conclusion.
先读清标签，再下结论。
A child predicts that a taller narrow cup has more water after a transfer.
一名儿童预测，转移后更高更窄的杯子中的水更多。
Design a question that tests reasoning rather than giving away the answer.
请设计一个问题来测试推理能力，而不是直接给出答案。
Pause before the model.
请先暂停，完成这道原创练习再继续。
Ask whether the amount changed and why, then ask what would happen if the water were poured back.
请询问数量是否发生了变化以及原因，接着问如果将水倒回去会发生什么。
Keep the initial amount and transfer visible and avoid evaluative feedback.
保持初始量和转移过程可见，并避免使用评价性反馈。
Reversibility or attention to both height and width would support conservation reasoning; one incorrect answer may also reflect language or task demands.
可逆性或同时关注高度与宽度有助于支持守恒推理；一个错误答案也可能反映了语言或任务要求的影响。
Assigning a stage by age alone, or treating a developmental sequence as a fixed timetable; the reasoning profile, not the birthday, defines the stage.
仅凭年龄划分阶段，或将发育序列视为固定时间表。 定义阶段的是推理能力特征，而非出生日期。
State the source and the limits.
请说明来源及局限性。
A child succeeds with familiar objects but not an abstract version.
儿童能处理熟悉物体，却无法应对抽象版本。
How could task demands affect a stage interpretation?
任务要求如何影响阶段解释？
Pause and write a justified answer.
请先暂停，完成这道原创练习再继续。