Concepts and contexts
International Baccalaureate · IB Diploma · Psychology · SL Topic 2 9:22 English narration · English + 中文 subtitles burned in
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The World Health Organization estimates that about 280 million people live with depression.
世界卫生组织估计，约有两亿八千万人患有抑郁症。
Is it a brain disease, a way of thinking, or a result of hard lives?
它是一种脑部疾病、一种思维方式，还是艰难生活的结果？
Each answer leads to a different treatment: pills, therapy, or changes to work and family life.
每种回答都通向不同的治疗：药物、心理治疗，或改变工作和家庭生活。
The concepts help you judge such claims; the contexts give you the cases to judge.
概念帮助你评判这些说法，情境则提供需要评判的案例。
Topic 1 gave you the content.
第一单元讲了内容。
This topic adds the other two parts of the course.
本单元加入课程的另外两部分。
The six concepts are questions you ask of any study or claim.
六个概念是你对任何研究或说法提出的问题。
The four contexts are real-world areas where you use the content: health and well-being, human development, human relationships, and learning and cognition.
四个情境是运用内容的现实领域：健康与幸福、人类发展、人际关系，以及学习与认知。
In Paper 1, Section B gives an unseen situation with two questions of 6 marks each, and Section C asks one concept-based essay worth 15 marks.
在试卷一中，B 部分给出一个陌生情境，两道题各 6 分；C 部分是一篇 15 分的概念型论文。
Each concept is a question to ask.
每个概念都是一个要问的问题。
Bias: what could push a result one way?
偏差：什么会把结果推向一边？
Asch tested only male American students.
阿希只测试了美国男学生。
Causality: does X cause Y, or do they only occur together?
因果关系：X 导致 Y，还是两者只是同时出现？
Maguire's taxi drivers were a correlation.
马圭尔的出租车司机研究只是相关。
Change: how and why does behaviour change?
变化：行为如何以及为何改变？
Measurement: how was behaviour turned into data?
测量：行为是怎样变成数据的？
Perspective: which approach or group is speaking?
视角：是哪种取向或群体在说话？
Responsibility: who could be harmed, and what do we owe them?
责任：谁可能受到伤害，我们对他们负有什么责任？
Two related words appear in many questions.
有两个相关的词常出现在题目中。
Validity means a study measures what it claims to measure.
效度指研究测量的正是它声称要测量的东西。
Reliability means it gives the same result when it is repeated.
信度指重复时得到同样的结果。
A study can be reliable without being valid: a scale that is always two kilograms out gives the same wrong answer every time.
研究可以有信度而没有效度：一台总是偏差两公斤的秤，每次都给出同样的错误读数。
Stress is not only a feeling; it changes the body.
压力不只是一种感受，它会改变身体。
Kiecolt-Glaser and colleagues made a small wound on the arms of 13 women who cared for a relative with dementia and 13 similar women who did not.
基科尔特-格拉泽等人在 13 名照顾痴呆亲属的女性和 13 名情况相似但不需照顾的女性手臂上制造一个小伤口。
The carers' wounds took 48.7 days on average to heal, against 39.3 days.
照顾者的伤口平均 48.7 天愈合，对照组是 39.3 天。
Long-term stress, through hormones such as cortisol, weakens the immune system.
长期压力通过皮质醇等激素削弱免疫系统。
Each approach explains depression in its own way.
每种取向都用自己的方式解释抑郁症。
The biological approach points to genes and serotonin, with twin heritability of about 38 percent and Caspi's gene study.
生物学取向指向基因和血清素，双胞胎遗传率约为百分之 38，还有卡斯皮的基因研究。
The cognitive approach points to negative thinking: Beck's cognitive triad, in which depressed people think badly of themselves, the world and the future.
认知取向指向消极思维：贝克的认知三联征，即抑郁者对自己、世界和未来都评价消极。
The sociocultural approach points to hard life conditions and weak social support.
社会文化取向指向艰难的生活条件和薄弱的社会支持。
Brown and Harris interviewed working-class women in London.
布朗和哈里斯访谈了伦敦的工人阶级女性。
Women became depressed after a serious life event more often if they also had vulnerability factors: no close person to talk to, three or more children under 14 at home, no job outside the home, or losing their mother before age 11.
如果女性同时具有易感因素，她们在重大生活事件后更容易患抑郁症：没有可以倾诉的亲近之人；家中有三个或以上 14 岁以下的孩子；没有外出工作；或在 11 岁前失去母亲。
The diathesis–stress model joins these views.
素质-压力模型把这些观点结合起来。
A diathesis is a weakness, such as certain genes or negative schemas.
素质是一种弱点，例如某些基因或消极图式。
It does not cause depression by itself, but it lowers the amount of stress needed.
它本身不会导致抑郁，但会降低引发抑郁所需的压力。
So two people can face the same stress, and only the vulnerable one becomes depressed.
所以两个人面对同样的压力，可能只有易感的那个人患上抑郁症。
Treatments follow the explanations.
治疗遵循解释。
Antidepressants such as SSRIs act on serotonin.
SSRI 类抗抑郁药作用于血清素。
Cognitive behavioural therapy teaches people to notice and test their negative thoughts.
认知行为疗法教人注意并检验自己的消极想法。
Social treatments improve support, for example through community groups.
社会性治疗通过社区团体等方式加强支持。
Many patients do best with a combination.
许多患者在综合治疗下效果最好。
Diagnosis uses manuals such as the DSM-5, which list symptoms.
诊断使用 DSM-5 等列出症状的手册。
But in some cultures people describe depression mainly through body pain or tiredness, so a list written in one culture can miss cases in another: a measurement problem, and a bias.
但在一些文化中，人们主要通过身体疼痛或疲倦来描述抑郁，所以在一种文化中写成的症状清单可能漏掉另一种文化中的病例：这是测量问题，也是偏差。
Theory of mind is understanding that other people have beliefs and knowledge that can differ from your own.
心理理论是理解别人拥有的信念和知识可能与自己不同。
Most children show it by about age 4 or 5.
大多数儿童在四五岁左右表现出这种能力。
In the Sally–Anne task, Sally puts her marble in a basket and leaves; Anne moves it to a box.
在萨莉-安妮任务中，萨莉把弹珠放进篮子后离开，安妮把它移到盒子里。
Where will Sally look?
萨莉会去哪里找？
85 percent of typical children and 86 percent of children with Down syndrome said the basket, but only 20 percent of autistic children did, although their mental age was higher.
百分之 85 的典型儿童和百分之 86 的唐氏综合征儿童回答篮子，而自闭症儿童只有百分之 20 答对，尽管他们的心理年龄更高。
How should we measure theory of mind?
我们应该怎样测量心理理论？
This is a measurement question.
这是一个测量问题。
The verbal false-belief task is simple and standard, but it needs language and memory, so it may underestimate young children.
口头错误信念任务简单、标准，但需要语言和记忆，可能低估年幼儿童。
Eye gaze shows that children look at the right place before they can say it.
眼神注视显示，儿童在说得出之前就会看向正确的地方。
Looking time shows that 15-month-olds stare longer when an actor searches in the wrong place, but we must infer their surprise.
注视时间显示，当演员在错误的地方寻找时，15 个月大的婴儿注视得更久，但我们只能推断他们感到惊讶。
So the verbal task says age 4, while non-verbal measures suggest earlier understanding.
所以口头任务给出 4 岁，而非言语测量提示理解出现得更早。
Attachment is the emotional bond between a child and a carer.
依恋是儿童与照顾者之间的情感纽带。
Ainsworth's Strange Situation observes a one-year-old as the mother leaves and returns, and classifies the child as secure, avoidant or resistant.
安斯沃斯的陌生情境观察一岁婴儿在母亲离开和返回时的反应，把孩子分为安全型、回避型或反抗型。
In her American sample about two thirds were secure.
在她的美国样本中，约三分之二是安全型。
A review across eight countries found more avoidant children in Germany and more resistant children in Japan.
一项涵盖八个国家的综述发现，德国的回避型儿童更多，日本的反抗型儿童更多。
But a Japanese baby rarely left alone may be very upset in the test for cultural reasons, so the measure may carry an American bias.
但很少被单独留下的日本婴儿可能因文化原因在测试中非常不安，所以这一测量可能带有美国式的偏差。
Darley and Latané let students talk over an intercom, and then they heard another student have a seizure.
达利和拉塔内让学生通过对讲机交谈，然后他们听到另一名学生癫痫发作。
When students believed they were the only listener, 85 percent went for help before the seizure ended; when they believed four others could hear, only 31 percent did.
当学生以为只有自己在听时，百分之 85 在发作结束前去求助；当他们以为另有四人能听到时，只有百分之 31 去求助。
This is the bystander effect: the more people present, the less each person feels responsible. It is called diffusion of responsibility.
这就是旁观者效应：在场的人越多，每个人感到的责任越少，这叫作责任分散。
In Milgram's study, 40 men were told to give a learner electric shocks for wrong answers.
在米尔格拉姆的研究中，40 名男性被要求在学习者答错时施加电击。
The shocks were not real, but the men believed they were.
电击并不真实，但他们相信是真的。
65 percent continued to the highest level, 450 volts.
百分之 65 一直进行到最高的 450 伏。
Obedience fell when the learner was in the same room, or when another teacher refused first.
当学习者在同一房间，或另一名“教师”先拒绝时，服从率下降。
The study raises the concept of responsibility: many participants were in real distress, and today it would not pass an ethics review in this form.
这项研究涉及责任这一概念：许多参与者确实很痛苦，如今以这种形式无法通过伦理审查。
In Sherif's Robbers Cave study, two groups of 11- and 12-year-old boys at a summer camp competed for prizes and soon became hostile.
在谢里夫的罗伯斯山洞研究中，夏令营里两组 11 到 12 岁的男孩争夺奖品，很快变得敌对。
Simply meeting did not reduce the conflict.
仅仅见面并不能减少冲突。
It fell when the groups had to work together on superordinate goals, such as fixing the camp's water supply.
只有当两组必须为共同目标合作时，例如修好营地的供水，冲突才下降。
Schools use the same idea in cooperative group work.
学校在合作小组学习中使用同样的思路。
In classical conditioning, a neutral signal is paired with something that already causes a response, until the signal alone causes it: Pavlov's dogs learned to salivate at a sound.
在经典条件反射中，一个中性信号与一个本来就会引起反应的东西反复配对，直到信号本身就能引起反应：巴甫洛夫的狗学会了听到声音就分泌唾液。
In operant conditioning, behaviour that is followed by a reward becomes more frequent, as Skinner showed.
在操作性条件反射中，得到奖励的行为会变得更频繁，正如斯金纳所展示的。
Social learning theory adds that we also learn by watching others.
社会学习理论补充说，我们还通过观察他人来学习。
Roediger and Karpicke had students learn short texts.
罗迪格和卡皮克让学生学习短文。
One group read the text four times; another read it once and then tried to recall it three times.
一组把文章读四遍；另一组读一遍，然后尝试回忆三次。
After one week, the testing group recalled 61 percent of the ideas and the re-reading group only 40 percent.
一周后，测试组回忆起百分之 61 的观点，重读组只有百分之 40。
This is the testing effect.
这就是测试效应。
Spacing study over several days also helps more than one long session.
把学习分散到几天进行，也比一次长时间学习更有效。
Sparrow and colleagues found that people remembered less of some new facts when they expected a computer to save them; instead, they remembered where the facts were saved.
斯帕罗等人发现，当人们预计电脑会保存某些新事实时，他们对这些事实记得更少；他们记住的是事实保存在哪里。
This is often called the Google effect.
这通常被称为“谷歌效应”。
Section B gives you a short new situation, with two questions of 6 marks each.
B 部分给你一个简短的新情境，两道题各 6 分。
Pick the right content, explain it, and use details from the situation.
选对内容，加以解释，并使用情境中的细节。
Do not just describe a study; show how it applies.
不要只描述研究，要说明它如何适用。
A Section C title says that one perspective is not enough to explain mental health; discuss it with one biological explanation.
C 部分的一个题目说：单一视角不足以解释心理健康，请结合一种生物学解释进行讨论。
First define perspective as the approach used.
首先把视角定义为所用的取向。
Then the biological explanation: genes, with Kendler: about 38 percent of the risk comes from genes, so genes alone leave most of the variation unexplained.
然后是生物学解释：基因。 肯德勒发现约百分之 38 的风险来自基因，所以仅靠基因无法解释大部分差异。
Caspi showed the gene mattered only with stressful life events.
卡斯皮表明，这个基因只在有压力性生活事件时才起作用。
As a counter-point, SSRIs help many patients, so biology gives a useful treatment.
反方观点：SSRI 帮助了许多患者，所以生物学提供了有用的治疗。
Conclude that the evidence supports the claim, and that diathesis–stress joins the perspectives.
结论：证据支持这一说法，素质-压力模型把各种视角结合起来。
Check yourself.
自我检查。
Can you ask the six concepts as questions, and define validity and reliability?
你能把六个概念当作问题来问，并定义效度和信度吗？
For health: Kiecolt-Glaser, three explanations of depression, diathesis–stress, treatments and culture in diagnosis.
健康：基科尔特-格拉泽、抑郁症的三种解释、素质-压力模型、治疗方法和诊断中的文化。
For development: Sally–Anne, three ways to measure theory of mind, and the Strange Situation.
发展：萨莉-安妮任务、测量心理理论的三种方法和陌生情境。
For relationships: the bystander effect, Milgram and Sherif.
关系：旁观者效应、米尔格拉姆和谢里夫。
For learning: conditioning, the testing effect and the Google effect.
学习：条件反射、测试效应和谷歌效应。
In Section B apply to the situation; in Section C use a concept to argue both sides and conclude.
B 部分要联系情境；C 部分用一个概念正反论证并得出结论。