Вопросы для повторения

Межмолекулярные взаимодействия, включая водородные связи

• The same intermolecular interactions help explain surface tension and the energy needed to change temperature. Heating changes molecular motion and interactions; it does not normally break the covalent O–H bonds.

4180 J

• Appropriate relation; consistent substitution; correct result; meaningful unit and interpretation.

Замещение, приводящее к синонимичному кодону

• A codon comprises three bases. The genetic code is degenerate: more than one codon can specify the same amino acid. A substitution can therefore be silent, while insertions or deletions can shift the reading frame.

20 аминокислот

• Appropriate relation; consistent substitution; correct result; meaningful unit and interpretation.

Митохондрии имеют собственную ДНК

• Independent observations strengthen a model when they make a consistent prediction. Similarity is evidence to evaluate alongside ancestry, sequence comparisons and alternative explanations, rather than proof from one feature.

75 %

• Appropriate relation; consistent substitution; correct result; meaningful unit and interpretation.

Преобразуйте обе длины, используя собственные масштабные линейки

• A scale bar provides a known real distance in the same image. Convert the image length and real length to the same unit before dividing. Magnification is a ratio and has no unit.

300

• Appropriate relation; consistent substitution; correct result; meaningful unit and interpretation.

Устойчивые варианты выживают и размножаются более успешно

• After vaccination, memory cells can support a faster secondary response. Antibiotic resistance arises through heritable variation and selection; an individual bacterium does not choose to become resistant because it needs to survive.

20

• Appropriate relation; consistent substitution; correct result; meaningful unit and interpretation.

Эволюционные связи

• Read relationships from the branching order. Rotating branches at a node does not change ancestry. A branch length represents time or change only when the diagram gives a scale.

16 %

• Appropriate relation; consistent substitution; correct result; meaningful unit and interpretation.

Это индивидуальная адаптация в течение жизни организма

• Explain both a benefit and a cost. Reducing stomatal opening conserves water but can limit carbon dioxide entry. A feature cannot be judged as universally best without its ecological context.

20 g/(m² h)

• Appropriate relation; consistent substitution; correct result; meaningful unit and interpretation.

Их равномерность распределения

• Compare surveys with similar area, effort, season and identification rules. A diversity index is meaningful only with its formula and conventions specified. Habitat fragmentation can affect movement and gene flow even when total area changes little.

4 видов

• Appropriate relation; consistent substitution; correct result; meaningful unit and interpretation.

Глицерин с тремя жирными кислотами, соединенными эфирными связями

• Condensation forms a linkage with a small molecule such as water released in the simplified model; hydrolysis uses water to break such a linkage. Polymer sequence, branching, polarity and three-dimensional shape matter. Saturated fatty acids have no carbon-carbon double bond, while unsaturated fatty acids have at least one; this difference can influence packing under stated conditions.

34 связей

• Appropriate relation; consistent substitution; correct result; meaningful unit and interpretation.

Для последовательного удаления поверхностного раствора

• Use percentage change to compare samples with different initial masses. A zero percentage change estimates a solution concentration with no net water movement. This is an estimate from a trend, not proof that water molecules stop moving.

-10 %

• Appropriate relation; consistent substitution; correct result; meaningful unit and interpretation.

Они экспрессируют разные наборы генов

• Link a named feature to a mechanism and then to the function. Increased area can support exchange, but membrane proteins, gradients and metabolic demand also matter. Stem cells retain different degrees of developmental potential.

0.5 на единицу

• Appropriate relation; consistent substitution; correct result; meaningful unit and interpretation.

Вентиляция и кровоток

• Distinguish movement of the whole medium from diffusion across the membrane. Ventilation and perfusion work together, while haemoglobin helps transport oxygen in blood. A change in breathing rate alone does not measure oxygen uptake.

6 л/мин

• Appropriate relation; consistent substitution; correct result; meaningful unit and interpretation.

Она эмульгирует липиды

• Absorption moves soluble products into blood or lymph. Thin exchange surfaces and a large surface area shorten diffusion paths and increase transfer. Enzyme activity and transport are different processes.

25 %

• Appropriate relation; consistent substitution; correct result; meaningful unit and interpretation.

Она остается приблизительно постоянной

• During shortening, overlap increases. The A-band length stays approximately constant while I bands and the H zone become smaller. Movement at a joint also depends on tendon insertion, lever geometry and opposing muscle activity.

20 %

• Appropriate relation; consistent substitution; correct result; meaningful unit and interpretation.

Зафиксированное использование ресурсов и условий с учетом взаимодействий

• Separate a habitat observation from a causal claim about a niche boundary. Absence from a site can reflect dispersal, detection, abiotic conditions or interactions. Resource partitioning can reduce overlap, but an observational difference alone does not prove that competition caused it. Compare alternative explanations and the timescale of evidence.

30 %

• Appropriate relation; consistent substitution; correct result; meaningful unit and interpretation.

Использование буферов с разным pH при одной температуре

• Measure rate using product formed per unit time or a fixed endpoint. For an endpoint test, 1/time is a rate proxy if the same amount of product or substrate change defines the endpoint each time.

0.02 1/s

• Appropriate relation; consistent substitution; correct result; meaningful unit and interpretation.

Чтобы уменьшить изменения объема газа, не связанные с дыханием

• Anaerobic processes allow ATP production when oxygen supply cannot support the required aerobic rate, but give less ATP per glucose. In humans lactate can accumulate; yeast can produce ethanol and carbon dioxide.

0.1 см³/мин/г

• Appropriate relation; consistent substitution; correct result; meaningful unit and interpretation.

Другим фактором теперь может быть ограничение скорости

• Change only one factor when testing a limiting factor. At low light, extra light may increase rate. At a plateau, the changed factor is no longer the main limit in that range; the graph alone does not identify which other factor is limiting.

3 см³/мин

• Appropriate relation; consistent substitution; correct result; meaningful unit and interpretation.

У них различаются рецепторы или внутренние пути передачи сигнала

• Distinguish signal reception, transduction and response. Amplification can allow a small extracellular change to produce a larger intracellular effect. Different receptors or pathways can give different responses to one signal.

5

• Appropriate relation; consistent substitution; correct result; meaningful unit and interpretation.

За счет частоты нервных импульсов или рекрутирования

• The all-or-none principle applies to an individual action potential. Stimulus information can be encoded by frequency and recruitment. Myelination permits saltatory conduction between nodes rather than making ions move freely through myelin.

Ст 60 Гц

• Appropriate relation; consistent substitution; correct result; meaningful unit and interpretation.

Усиление действия инсулина

• When blood glucose is high, insulin helps increase glucose uptake and storage as glycogen. When it is low, glucagon supports release of glucose from stores. These responses are coordinated, not identical effects of two hormones.

25 %

• Appropriate relation; consistent substitution; correct result; meaningful unit and interpretation.

Использовать трансект с фиксированными расстояниями отбора проб

• Estimate total abundance by multiplying mean density by area, with consistent units. This assumes sampled areas represent the habitat. Patchiness and too few samples widen uncertainty.

12

• Appropriate relation; consistent substitution; correct result; meaningful unit and interpretation.

Два значения производства с общими единицами площади, времени и энергии

• Use the same energy units and period in numerator and denominator. Distinguish ingestion, assimilation and production: consumed energy is not all assimilated, and assimilated energy is not all stored as new biomass. An energy pyramid records a flow per area per time; a standing biomass snapshot is a different quantity.

10 %

• Appropriate relation; consistent substitution; correct result; meaningful unit and interpretation.

Одна родительская цепь

• New DNA is synthesized in the 5′ to 3′ direction. In a simplified fork model, one new strand can be synthesized continuously while the other is produced in fragments that are joined. Distinguish these molecular mechanisms from the later separation of chromosomes during cell division. Copying errors can occur despite proofreading and repair.

25 %

• Appropriate relation; consistent substitution; correct result; meaningful unit and interpretation.

Он удваивается

• Count chromosomes by centromeres under the stated convention. DNA amount and chromosome number are different quantities. Crossing over and independent assortment contribute to meiotic variation.

15 %

• Appropriate relation; consistent substitution; correct result; meaningful unit and interpretation.

Наличием большего количества данного транскрипта при исследованных условиях

• Distinguish a measured mRNA change from a protein or functional change. Translation, degradation and protein modification can all intervene. Regulation is specific to a cell context and environmental conditions.

3

• Appropriate relation; consistent substitution; correct result; meaningful unit and interpretation.

В клетку

• Compare the complete water potentials of the two sides rather than solute concentrations alone. A turgid cell can have the same total water potential as its surroundings despite unequal solute potential. At equilibrium there is no net transfer, but water molecules can continue moving in both directions.

−0.3 МПа

• Appropriate relation; consistent substitution; correct result; meaningful unit and interpretation.

Оплодотворение

• Distinguish homologous chromosomes from sister chromatids, and chromosome number from DNA quantity. Replication before meiosis copies DNA without doubling the number of chromosome sets. Crossing over and independent assortment contribute to genetic variation, while random fertilization further changes combinations. These processes do not make every offspring genetically distinct under every conceivable condition.

10 хромосом

• Appropriate relation; consistent substitution; correct result; meaningful unit and interpretation.

При каждой оплодотворенной яйцеклетке вероятность получения aa составляет одну четвертую согласно этой модели

• In a simple monohybrid cross Aa × Aa, gametes carry A or a. Combining independent gametes gives AA, Aa, Aa and aa. The predicted probabilities describe many possible fertilizations, not a fixed order of children.

50 %

• Appropriate relation; consistent substitution; correct result; meaningful unit and interpretation.

Поднятие уязвимого электрического оборудования выше ожидаемого уровня наводнения

• Distinguish mitigation, which addresses drivers, from adaptation, which reduces harm from impacts. A policy assessment needs evidence about effectiveness, cost, equity and uncertainty; one criterion is not the entire decision.

30 %

• Appropriate relation; consistent substitution; correct result; meaningful unit and interpretation.

Весы показывают 0.20 г в пустом состоянии

• For a product or quotient, adding fractional uncertainties is a common maximum-uncertainty approximation. For a difference, add absolute uncertainties. A nonzero intercept can reveal an offset or an incomplete model.

2.5 %

• Appropriate relation; consistent substitution; correct result; meaningful unit and interpretation.