Ekonomi campuran dan eksternalitas
Pearson Edexcel · International GCSE · Economics Topik 3 3:48 Narasi bahasa Inggris · Subtitle bahasa Inggris + 中文 disematkan langsung
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A mixed economy has a private sector and a public sector.
混合经济既有私营部门也有公共部门。
Markets sometimes fail, producing too much or too little.
市场有时会失灵，生产过多或过少。
Externalities are one cause: costs and benefits that fall on third parties.
外部性是原因之一：落在第三方身上的成本和收益。
The private sector is owned and controlled by individuals and firms, aiming mostly at profit.
私营部门由个人和企业拥有和控制，主要追求利润。
The public sector is owned and controlled by the state, aiming at welfare and services.
公共部门由国家拥有和控制，目标是福利和公共服务。
Both produce goods and services, and their relative importance differs from Cuba to the USA to Sweden.
两者都生产商品和服务，它们的相对重要性因国家而异，从古巴到美国再到瑞典各不相同。
Every economy must decide what to produce, how to produce it, and for whom.
每个经济体都要决定生产什么、怎样生产、为谁生产。
In a mixed economy both mechanisms answer: prices and profit signal the market part, while government directs resources to health, education and public goods.
在混合经济中，两种机制共同回答：价格和利润为市场部分发出信号，政府则把资源引向医疗、教育和公共物品。
Market failure is the inefficient allocation of resources: the market produces too much or too little of a good compared with the social optimum.
市场失灵是资源配置无效率：与社会最优相比，市场生产某种商品过多或过少。
Because of it, governments intervene: to correct externalities, provide public goods, and protect consumers.
因此政府会干预：纠正外部性、提供公共物品、保护消费者。
Public goods, such as street lighting and flood defence, are non-excludable and non-rival.
公共物品，例如路灯和防洪设施，具有非排他性和非竞争性。
Because no one can be stopped from using them, people free ride: no one pays, so no private firm supplies them, and the public sector must.
因为无法阻止任何人使用，人们就会搭便车：没有人付钱，所以没有私营企业提供，只能由公共部门提供。
Privatisation transfers ownership from the public to the private sector.
私有化是把所有权从公共部门转给私营部门。
Consumers may pay lower prices if efficiency is passed on, or higher prices if a monopoly results.
如果效率提高的好处传给消费者，价格可能降低；如果形成垄断，价格可能升高。
Workers may lose jobs in efficiency drives.
工人可能在提高效率的过程中失业。
Businesses gain profit opportunities.
企业获得盈利机会。
Government gets a one-off sale receipt, then loses dividends.
政府得到一次性出售收入，之后失去分红。
External costs of production fall on third parties, not on the producer or consumer: pollution, congestion, environmental damage.
生产的外部成本落在第三方身上，而不是生产者或消费者：污染、拥堵、环境破坏。
External benefits of consumption also fall on third parties: education, healthcare, vaccinations.
消费的外部收益同样落在第三方身上：教育、医疗、疫苗接种。
Two formulae.
两个公式。
Social cost equals private cost plus external cost.
社会成本等于私人成本加外部成本。
Social benefit equals private benefit plus external benefit.
社会收益等于私人收益加外部收益。
If a unit costs its producer 20 and dumps an external cost of 6, its social cost is 26.
如果一件产品的生产者成本是 20，又造成 6 的外部成本，它的社会成本就是 26。
Use the shared model: demand is marginal private benefit, supply is marginal private cost, and the market trades at 100 units and a price of 20.
沿用同一个模型：需求是边际私人收益，供给是边际私人成本，市场在 100 件、价格 20 处成交。
With an external cost of 6 per unit, social cost lies above.
每件有 6 的外部成本，社会成本曲线位于上方。
The social optimum sits at 92 units and 24.
社会最优在 92 件、价格 24 处。
The market over-produces by 8 units.
市场多生产了 8 件。
In 2014 the seven largest supermarkets handed out about 7.6 billion single-use bags.
2014 年，七家最大的超市发出了约 76 亿个一次性塑料袋。
After the charge, sales fell by about 97%.
收费之后，销量下降了约百分之 97。
7.6 billion times 0.03 is 0.228 billion: about 228 million bags a year.
76 亿乘以 0.03 等于2.28 亿：每年约 2.28 亿个袋子。
For the charge: use fell by about 97%, it is cheap to run, and it brings private cost closer to social cost.
支持收费：使用量下降约百分之 97，执行成本低，使私人成本更接近社会成本。
Against: 5p does not measure the true external cost, and some shoppers switched to bags for life, which use more plastic.
反对：5 便士并不等于真实的外部成本，有些顾客改用更耗塑料的“环保袋”。
Judgement: very effective for bags, but combine it with rules on packaging.
判断：对塑料袋非常有效，但应与包装规定结合使用。
Check yourself.
自我检测。
A public good is non-excludable and non-rival.
公共物品具有非排他性和非竞争性。
Privatisation transfers ownership from the public to the private sector.
私有化是把所有权从公共部门转到私营部门。
Social cost is private cost plus external cost.
社会成本等于私人成本加外部成本。
And the market makes 100 where society wants 92.
市场生产 100，而社会只需要 92。