توسيع المستوى العالي: النظرية
دبلومة البكالوريا الدولية · IB Diploma · Social and Cultural Anthropology · HL الموضوع 4 4:08 سرد باللغة الإنجليزية · ترجمة مدمجة بالإنجليزية + الصينية
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النص الصوتي
In 2007 the United States Army began the Human Terrain System. It placed social scientists, including anthropologists, with army units in Iraq and Afghanistan to explain local culture to soldiers.
2007 年，美国陆军启动了“人文地形系统”项目，把包括人类学家在内的社会科学家派到伊拉克和阿富汗的部队，向士兵解释当地文化。
Supporters said it would save lives.
支持者说这能挽救生命。
But the American Anthropological Association said it went against the discipline's ethics. People could not freely refuse when the researcher came with armed soldiers, and what they said might be used to target them.
但美国人类学协会认为它违背了学科伦理：研究者带着武装士兵来，人们无法自由拒绝，而他们说的话可能被用来针对他们自己。
The programme ended in 2014.
该项目于 2014 年结束。
HL students go further in two ways.
HL 学生在两方面更进一步。
They use anthropological theory to explain and evaluate ethnographic material, in Paper 2 and the internal assessment. And they answer a Paper 1 question on ethics, based on one of two short stimulus texts.
一是用人类学理论解释和评价民族志材料，用在试卷二和内部评估中；二是在试卷一回答一道伦理题，题目基于两篇简短材料中的一篇。
Six theories make up the kit, and each asks different questions of the same material, here a gift.
理论工具箱里有六种理论，每种都对同一材料提出不同的问题，这里以礼物为例。
Functionalism, from Malinowski, says every institution does a job that keeps society stable.
马林诺夫斯基的功能主义认为，每种制度都有维持社会稳定的功能。
Structuralism, from Levi-Strauss, sees culture built on pairs of opposites.
列维-斯特劳斯的结构主义认为，文化建立在成对的对立之上。
And interpretive anthropology, from Geertz, reads culture as a web of meanings, through thick description.
格尔茨的阐释人类学把文化看作一张意义之网，用“深描”去解读。
Three more theories are about power and position.
另外三种理论关注权力和位置。
Practice theory, from Bourdieu, says people follow learned habits but also bend the rules for their own ends.
布迪厄的实践理论认为，人们遵循习得的习性，但也会为自己的目的变通规则。
Political economy, influenced by Marx, asks how unequal wealth and power shape culture.
受马克思影响的政治经济学追问不平等的财富和权力如何塑造文化。
And feminist anthropology, like Annette Weiner's, shows that gender shapes both social life and how it is studied.
女性主义人类学，比如韦纳的研究，表明性别既塑造社会生活，也塑造人们研究它的方式。
Annette Weiner went back to the Trobriand Islands in the 1970s.
安妮特·韦纳在 1970 年代重返特罗布里恩群岛。
She found that women exchange bundles of banana leaves and fibre skirts in large ceremonies after a death.
她发现，在有人去世后的大型仪式上，女人们交换成捆的香蕉叶和纤维裙。
Malinowski had said little about this female wealth, because, as a man, he had spent his time with men.
马林诺夫斯基对这种女性财富几乎只字未提，因为身为男性，他的时间都花在男人身上。
Theory and the researcher's position decide what gets seen.
理论和研究者的位置决定了能看到什么。
Use theory as a tool, not a label.
把理论当工具，而不是标签。
Apply two theories to the same material and ask which the evidence supports.
用两种理论分析同一材料，问证据更支持哪一种。
Take Yan's gift lists.
以阎云翔的礼单为例。
Mauss explains exchanges between equals, where gifts are carefully returned.
莫斯的理论能解释平等者之间的交换，礼物会被仔细回报。
A power reading explains what Mauss cannot, villagers giving to cadres without return, while the receiver's status rises.
权力视角能解释莫斯解释不了的：村民给干部送礼却得不到回报，而受礼者的地位反而上升。
The best answers say where each theory works and where it fails.
最好的答案会说明每种理论在哪里适用、在哪里失效。
Anthropologists study real people, often less powerful than themselves, so five principles apply.
人类学家研究的是真实的人，而且对方往往比自己弱势，所以要遵循五条原则。
Do no harm.
不伤害。
Informed consent, people know what the research is for and are free to say no.
知情同意：人们知道研究的目的，并且可以自由拒绝。
Anonymity and confidentiality.
匿名与保密。
Openness about purpose and funding, who pays and who will use the results.
公开目的和资金来源：谁出钱、谁会使用结果。
And a responsibility to give something back.
还有回馈的责任。
Another famous case. The American anthropologist Napoleon Chagnon described the Yanomami of the Amazon as a fierce people, in 1968.
另一个著名案例：1968 年，美国人类学家沙尼翁把亚马孙的亚诺玛米人描述为“凶猛的民族”。
Critics later argued that this image was used against the Yanomami in debates over their land.
后来的批评者认为，这种形象在土地争议中被用来对付亚诺玛米人。
A book in 2000 made further accusations, and some were later rejected.
2000 年的一本书又提出了更多指控，其中一些后来被驳回。
But the debate showed that how a people is described can affect their lives.
但这场争论表明：一个民族怎样被描述，会影响他们的生活。
Here is a plan for the ethics question.
这是一道伦理题的答题计划。
A company pays an anthropologist to study how families use their phones, to design advertising.
一家公司出钱请人类学家研究家庭怎样使用手机，用来设计广告。
Consent, do the families know who will use the findings?
同意：这些家庭知道谁会使用研究结果吗？
Harm, could they be used to sell to children?
伤害：结果会不会被用来向儿童推销？
Funding, the company owns the results, so can the anthropologist publish freely?
资金：结果归公司所有，人类学家能自由发表吗？
The judgement, it can be ethical if purpose and funding are open, consent is real and identities are protected, but the anthropologist must be ready to refuse harmful work.
结论：只要目的和资金公开、同意是真实的、身份得到保护，研究可以是合乎伦理的；但人类学家必须准备好拒绝有害的工作。
Check yourself without notes. Name the six theories, read Yan's gifts two ways, explain what Weiner saw that Malinowski missed, and plan the ethics answer for the advertising study.
不看笔记自测：说出六种理论；用两种理论解读阎云翔的礼物材料；说明韦纳看到了什么马林诺夫斯基没看到的，以及原因；再规划广告研究那道伦理题的答案。