知识与认识者
国际文凭组织 · IB Diploma · 知识论 知识点 1 6:19 英语旁白 · 英中内嵌字幕
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文本转录
Until August 2006 every school textbook said the Solar System had nine planets.
直到 2006 年 8 月，所有学校课本都说太阳系有九大行星。
Then the International Astronomical Union voted on a new definition: a planet must clear its orbit of other objects.
后来国际天文学联合会投票通过了“行星”的新定义：行星必须清空其轨道上的其他天体。
Pluto does not, so overnight it became a dwarf planet.
冥王星做不到，于是一夜之间成了“矮行星”。
Pluto itself did not change at all; a definition agreed by experts did.
冥王星本身没有任何变化，变的是专家们约定的定义。
Was the old knowledge wrong, or just different?
旧知识是错的，还是只是不同？
Who decides?
由谁决定？
These are TOK questions.
这些就是知识论的问题。
Theory of Knowledge is part of the core of the Diploma, and every student takes it.
知识论是文凭课程核心的一部分，每个学生都要学。
It does not teach new facts; it asks how we know what we claim to know, in every subject.
它不教新的事实，而是在每个学科中追问：我们怎么知道自己声称知道的东西。
The course has a core theme, knowledge and the knower; two optional themes chosen from five; and five areas of knowledge.
课程包括一个核心主题“知识与认知者”，从五个中选出的两个选修主题，以及五个知识领域。
TOK is assessed in two parts.
知识论分两部分评估。
An essay on one of six prescribed titles is worth two thirds of the grade. An exhibition of three objects is worth one third.
从六个规定题目中选一个写论文，占成绩的三分之二；用三件物品做展览，占三分之一。
A knowledge question is a question about knowledge itself, not about the subject matter.
知识问题是关于知识本身的问题，而不是关于学科内容的问题。
Is Pluto a planet is a first-order question about the world. To what extent is scientific knowledge decided by definitions agreed by experts is a knowledge question.
“冥王星是行星吗”是关于世界的一阶问题；“科学知识在多大程度上由专家约定的定义决定”才是知识问题。
In the same way, who came first in the class ranking is first-order; what a ranking can measure, and what it leaves out, is a knowledge question.
同样，“班级排名谁第一”是一阶问题；“排名能衡量什么、遗漏了什么”是知识问题。
A good knowledge question is open: it has more than one reasonable answer. It is general: it is about knowledge, not one fact. And it uses TOK words such as know, evidence, certainty, interpretation, bias, expert and method.
好的知识问题是开放的：有不止一个合理的答案；是一般性的：关乎知识，而不是某个事实；并且使用知识论的词语，例如知道、证据、确定性、解释、偏见、专家和方法。
Everyone knows from somewhere.
每个人都从某个位置去认知。
Your language, culture, education and interests are your perspective.
你的语言、文化、教育和兴趣构成你的视角。
They help you see some things and hide others.
它们让你看见一些东西，也遮住另一些东西。
A common trap is confirmation bias: noticing the evidence that supports what we already believe and ignoring the rest.
一个常见的陷阱是确认偏误：只注意支持自己已有信念的证据，而忽略其余证据。
Knowledge is also shared by communities of knowers, such as scientists, historians, or a village with its own traditions.
知识也由知识共同体共享，例如科学家、历史学家，或有自己传统的村庄。
Each community decides together what counts as good evidence.
每个共同体共同决定什么才算好的证据。
There are five areas of knowledge, each with its own main method.
知识领域共有五个，各有主要方法。
History uses evidence from sources, then interpretation.
历史学依靠来源中的证据，再加以解释。
The human sciences use observation, surveys, experiments and models of human behaviour.
人文科学依靠观察、调查、实验和人类行为模型。
The natural sciences use hypothesis, experiment and peer review.
自然科学依靠假设、实验和同行评议。
The arts use creation, interpretation and the judgement of audiences and critics.
艺术依靠创作、解释以及观众和评论家的评判。
Mathematics uses proof from axioms.
数学依靠从公理出发的证明。
Think with a real example in each area.
每个领域都用一个真实例子来思考。
Historians still disagree about why the Western Roman Empire fell.
历史学家至今仍在争论西罗马帝国为何灭亡。
In the Hawthorne studies, factory workers seemed to work harder partly because they knew they were being studied.
在霍桑研究中，工人的产出上升，部分是因为他们知道自己正在被研究。
In 1984 Barry Marshall drank a culture of bacteria to show they cause stomach ulcers, and later shared a Nobel Prize.
1984 年，巴里·马歇尔喝下一份细菌培养液，证明细菌会引起胃溃疡，后来获得诺贝尔奖。
In 1917 Marcel Duchamp signed a factory-made urinal and called it Fountain; many experts now see it as one of the century's most important works.
1917 年，马塞尔·杜尚在一个工厂生产的小便池上签名，称之为《泉》；如今许多专家认为它是本世纪最重要的作品之一。
And for two thousand years Euclid's parallel postulate seemed obviously true, until mathematicians built consistent geometries without it.
欧几里得的平行公设两千年来似乎显然正确，直到数学家建立了不依赖它的自洽几何。
The best TOK thinking compares areas.
最好的知识论思考会比较不同领域。
Does evidence, proof or explain mean the same in history as in the natural sciences?
“证据”“证明”“解释”在历史学中和在自然科学中意思相同吗？
A historian interprets sources that cannot be repeated; a scientist runs experiments that others can repeat.
历史学家解释无法重复的来源；科学家做别人可以重复的实验。
Each exam session the IB publishes six prescribed titles.
每次考试季，国际文凭组织都会公布六个规定题目。
You write an essay of up to 1,600 words on one of them.
你选其中一个，写一篇不超过 1600 词的论文。
It is marked by IB examiners and is worth two thirds of the TOK grade.
论文由国际文凭考官评分，占知识论成绩的三分之二。
Build the essay in five moves.
论文分五步展开。
Unpack the title: define its key terms and say what is asked.
拆解题目：界定关键词，说明题目在问什么。
Argue: develop a claim with a real, specific example from one area of knowledge.
论证：用一个知识领域中真实、具体的例子提出主张。
Counterclaim: give the strongest point against it, with an example.
反主张：给出最有力的反驳，并举例。
Second area: compare how the same question works in another area.
第二个领域：比较同一问题在另一个领域如何体现。
Implications: say what follows from your conclusion, and why it matters.
意义：说明你的结论带来什么后果，以及为什么重要。
A specimen title asks how important the opinions of experts are in the search for knowledge, with reference to the arts and one other area.
一个样题问：在寻求知识的过程中，专家的意见有多重要？ 请结合艺术和另一个知识领域作答。
Unpack: an expert is a trained person trusted by a community.
拆解：专家是受过训练、被某个共同体信任的人。
In the natural sciences, peer review by experts catches mistakes.
在自然科学中，专家的同行评议能发现错误。
Counterclaim: experts rejected Marshall's evidence for years; in the end the evidence, not their opinion, decided.
反主张：专家多年拒绝马歇尔的证据，最终起决定作用的是证据，而不是他们的意见。
In the arts, experts partly make the knowledge: Fountain is famous art because the art world accepted it.
在艺术中，专家在一定程度上创造了知识：《泉》之所以成为著名艺术品，是因为艺术界接受了它。
Implication: in the sciences expert opinion is a strong but correctable guide; in the arts it helps decide what counts as knowledge at all.
意义：在科学中，专家意见是有力但可纠正的向导；在艺术中，它还帮助决定什么才算知识。
The exhibition is your internal assessment, worth one third of the grade.
展览是你的内部评估，占成绩的三分之一。
You choose one of the IB's 35 prompts, such as what role experts play in our acquisition of knowledge, and three real objects that show how that prompt appears in the world.
你从国际文凭组织的 35 个提示中选一个，例如“专家在我们获取知识中起什么作用”，再选三件真实物品，展示这个提示在现实世界中如何出现。
Your three commentaries together are up to 950 words.
三篇评论合计不超过 950 词。
Your teacher marks it, and the IB moderates the marks.
由老师评分，国际文凭组织进行审核。
Each object must be real and specific: this weather app on your phone, not weather apps in general.
每件物品都必须真实而具体：是你手机上的这个天气应用，而不是笼统的天气应用。
Each commentary explains the object's real-world context, links it clearly to the prompt, and gives reasons with evidence.
每篇评论都要说明物品的现实背景，把它与提示清楚地联系起来，并用证据给出理由。
The three objects should show three different links to the prompt, for example a weather app, a nutrition label and a chess engine's record for the experts prompt.
三件物品应展示与提示的三种不同联系，例如针对专家这个提示，可以选一个天气应用、一张营养标签和一份国际象棋引擎的记录。
Check yourself.
自我检查。
Can you turn a first-order question into a knowledge question, as with Pluto?
你能像冥王星的例子那样，把一阶问题变成知识问题吗？
Can you explain perspective, confirmation bias and communities of knowers?
你能解释视角、确认偏误和知识共同体吗？
Can you name each area's method and one real example?
你能说出每个知识领域的方法和一个真实例子吗？
Can you plan the five essay moves for a title, and choose three exhibition objects with different links to one prompt?
你能为一个题目规划论文的五步，并为一个提示选出三件联系各不相同的展览物品吗？