Pearson Edexcel · International A-Level

经济学

Papers, samples and curriculum documents for this course. · ⁨本课程的文件、样卷和课程大纲。⁩

Qualification code · ⁨资格代码⁩: XEC11 / YEC11

Recent past papers · ⁨近期真题⁩

52 paper and mark-scheme pairs · ⁨真题与评分标准对⁩

Browse papers and mark schemes · ⁨浏览文件和评分标准⁩ →

Course units and learning goals · ⁨课程单元与学习目标⁩

These lessons teach selected course objectives. Check the remaining coverage gaps; the material is not a complete preparation programme. · ⁨这些课程教授选定的教学目标。请检查剩余的覆盖缺口；本材料并非完整的备考方案。⁩

Lessons · ⁨课程⁩ →Vocabulary practice · ⁨词汇练习⁩ →

1.3.1–1.3.4 · Consumer behaviour and markets

Analyse marginal decisions and production possibility frontiers
Calculate elasticities and distinguish shifts from movements
Use assumptions and ceteris paribus to interpret a model
Separate a testable claim from a policy value judgement
Distinguish economic/free goods and renewable/non-renewable resources
Use marginal PPF analysis and explain investment-versus-consumption choices
Explain how division of labour and money support exchange
Distinguish saving, funding, transactions, forwards and equity-market roles
Compare free-market, command and mixed allocation
Evaluate information, incentives, distribution and public provision
Explain all six specified behavioural departures from utility maximization
Evaluate competing explanations without labelling every habit irrational
Distinguish marginal benefit from total benefit
Explain demand slopes, movements and each specified shift determinant
Distinguish demand slope from local percentage responsiveness
Use PED magnitudes, determinants and revenue in price decisions
Calculate YED and XED using the correct stimulus variable
Apply signs and magnitudes without assuming universal product labels
Explain supply shifts and specific/ad-valorem tax differences
Calculate PES and analyse stocks, mobility, rules and capacity
Solve equilibrium and explain shortage/surplus adjustment
Distinguish known from ambiguous effects when both curves shift
Calculate surplus areas for linear demand and supply
Explain how a demand shift changes gains from trade
Distinguish the three price-mechanism functions
Apply them across local, national and global markets with constraints
Solve buyer price, seller receipt and quantity with a specific tax
Explain relative-elasticity incidence and public receipts
Solve a subsidy wedge and calculate public expenditure
Compare gains to buyers/sellers with financing and social effects

marginal benefit: The extra benefit from one additional unit.
equilibrium · ⁨平衡⁩: A state where planned demand and supply agree.
ceteris paribus: Holding other relevant factors unchanged when analysing a relationship.
normative statement: A claim incorporating a value judgement about what should happen.
capital good: A produced good used to make other goods or services.
economic good: A scarce good with an opportunity cost in its relevant context.
medium of exchange: An accepted means of paying for goods and services.
forward contract: An agreement now for an exchange at specified terms on a future date.
command economy: An allocation system relying mainly on central administrative decisions.
mixed economy: An economy combining market allocation with government activity.
inertia: Remaining with an existing option rather than actively changing it.
framing: Different presentation of equivalent information influences a decision.
marginal utility: Additional satisfaction from consuming one more unit.
diminishing marginal utility: Additional satisfaction falls as more units are consumed over a stated range.
price elasticity of demand: Percentage quantity-demanded response relative to percentage own-price change.
unitary elasticity: The magnitude of percentage quantity response equals the percentage stimulus.
cross elasticity of demand: Percentage demand change for one good relative to percentage price change of another.
income elasticity of demand: Percentage demand change relative to percentage income change.
price elasticity of supply: Percentage quantity-supplied response relative to percentage own-price change.
ad valorem tax: A tax charged as a percentage of a stated value.
market equilibrium: Planned quantity demanded equals planned quantity supplied at a price.
excess supply: Planned supply exceeds planned demand at a particular price.
consumer surplus: Total willingness to pay above the payment for units purchased.
producer surplus: Receipts above the minimum required to supply the units sold.
price signal: Information conveyed by a price about relative scarcity or demand.
rationing by price: Allocating limited output among buyers willing and able to pay.
tax incidence: The distribution of the economic burden of a tax.
specific tax: A fixed tax amount per unit of a good.
subsidy incidence: The distribution of a subsidy’s economic benefit between market participants.
public expenditure: Spending by government on services, transfers or other activity.

1.3.5–1.3.6 · Market failure and policy

Compare externalities, public goods and information failure
Evaluate tax, subsidy, regulation and government failure
Explain overproduction and underproduction relative to social efficiency
Identify distinct externality, public-good, information and incentive failures
Calculate marginal social cost and welfare loss from external production costs
Distinguish negative from positive production externalities and justify their diagrams
Calculate social benefit and the loss from underconsumption
Distinguish private health/education returns from genuine third-party benefits
Classify goods by rivalry and excludability
Explain free riding and distinguish public goods from publicly funded private services
Distinguish shared uncertainty from asymmetric information
Apply information failures to insurance, health, education and pensions
Explain behaviour changes after insurance or expected rescue
Evaluate effects on consumers, producers, workers and governments
Explain expectation-driven feedback in housing and equity markets
Trace gains and losses across households, firms, workers and government
Analyse binding maximum and guaranteed minimum prices
Match tax/subsidy instruments to the policy aim and evaluate trade-offs
Compare tradable permits with taxes and direct limits
Explain bargaining conditions and evaluate enforcement and distribution
Match public provision, regulation and information to distinct failure mechanisms
Evaluate capacity, incentives and access across prescribed policy contexts
Explain intervention-induced net welfare loss
Evaluate information, incentives, unintended effects, administration and moral hazard

public good: A good that is non-rival and non-excludable.
government failure: Intervention causes a net welfare loss relative to the stated comparison.
market failure: Market allocation does not achieve an efficient use of resources.
social optimum: An allocation maximizing net social benefit within the stated model and constraints.
marginal external cost: Uncompensated third-party cost from one additional unit.
marginal social cost: Marginal private cost plus marginal external cost, net of any external production benefit.
marginal external benefit: Uncompensated third-party benefit from one additional unit.
marginal social benefit: Marginal private benefit plus marginal external benefit, net of external consumption costs.
non-rivalry: One user’s consumption does not reduce availability to another user.
non-excludability: Preventing non-payers from benefiting is infeasible or impractically costly.
asymmetric information: One party has more relevant information than another in a decision or transaction.
adverse selection: Hidden characteristics affect who enters a transaction, potentially worsening the pool.
moral hazard: Protection from consequences changes incentives to take care or take risks.
deductible: The amount of an insured loss borne by the policyholder before cover pays the remainder.
speculative bubble: Expectation-driven price feedback can move an asset beyond levels supported by expected fundamental returns.
leverage: Use of borrowing that makes changes in asset value larger relative to the owner’s equity.
binding price ceiling: A maximum below the otherwise-clearing price, restricting legal price adjustment.
guaranteed minimum price: A supported minimum at which eligible supply is purchased under the stated guarantee.
tradable pollution permit: An exchangeable authorization for a specified amount of emissions within a regulated system.
property rights: Enforceable claims governing use, control or compensation for a resource or activity.
state provision: Government delivery or arrangement of a service under the stated funding and production structure.
regulation: Enforceable rules constraining an activity, product or behaviour.
administrative cost: Resources used to design, deliver, monitor and enforce a policy.

2.3.1–2.3.5 · National income and aggregate activity

Distinguish nominal, real and per-capita measures
Use AD/AS and the multiplier to explain output changes
Calculate real and per-capita measures without confusing output value with volume
Explain residence-based GNI and purchasing-power comparisons
Interpret positive/negative growth and the specification’s recession criterion
Evaluate income measures alongside national wellbeing and subjective happiness
Calculate CPI inflation from basket weights and index changes
Distinguish inflation, disinflation and deflation and evaluate CPI/PPI evidence
Distinguish demand, supply and monetary explanations of price changes
Evaluate inflation/deflation effects without assuming every stakeholder gains or loses equally
Apply the ILO framework and correct rate denominators
Explain unemployment types, underemployment, inactivity and migration effects
Calculate goods/services and current-account balances
Distinguish income/transfer flows from capital and financial transactions
Calculate domestic aggregate expenditure without double-counting imports or transfers
Distinguish a price-level movement along AD from a determinant-driven shift
Explain all prescribed consumption determinants
Calculate average saving ratios and distinguish them from marginal propensities
Distinguish gross investment from net additions to productive capital
Evaluate growth, interest, expectations, credit and tax/subsidy influences
Explain fiscal, activity, market-failure and priority influences on spending
Distinguish direct purchases from transfers and evaluate resource constraints
Explain real-income, exchange-rate, global-demand, protection and non-price trade influences
Calculate a quoted exchange-rate effect and separate it from net-trade predictions
Distinguish AS movements from cost-driven SRAS shifts
Compare Keynesian and classical supply shapes without treating them as identical
Explain every prescribed long-run supply determinant
Distinguish productivity changes from labour-force expansion and evaluate capacity constraints
Distinguish money flows from real-resource flows
Distinguish income over a period from wealth at a date
Classify I/G/X and S/T/M in the circular flow
Explain net injections and distinguish planned spending from accounting equality
Solve a consistent AD/SRAS intersection in a stated model
Analyse output/price changes and qualify simultaneous-shift conclusions
Calculate closed-model and withdrawal-based multipliers with explicit assumptions
Explain marginal propensities, successive spending rounds and limits on real-output predictions
Distinguish actual growth from potential growth using GDP and capacity measures
Explain domestic investment, FDI, innovation, labour, competition and trade growth channels
Explain all six prescribed growth-benefit channels
Evaluate employment, profit, investment and fiscal benefits using explicit conditions
Explain opportunity, environmental, trade, distribution and inflation costs of growth
Distinguish possible costs from unavoidable effects and evaluate mitigating conditions
Calculate positive and negative output gaps and separate trend growth from output levels
Explain gap characteristics and why estimating sustainable capacity is difficult

multiplier: The ratio of the total income change to an initial autonomous spending change.
real GDP: Output measured after removing price changes.
gross national income: GDP plus net primary income received from abroad by residents.
purchasing-power parity: A currency comparison adjusted for the prices of comparable goods and services.
disposable income: Income available for spending or saving after the relevant taxes and transfers.
subjective wellbeing: People’s own reported evaluation or experience of their lives.
consumer price index: A weighted index of prices for a representative household goods/services basket.
disinflation: A decline in a positive inflation rate; the general price level continues to rise.
demand-pull inflation: Price-level pressure from aggregate spending expanding relative to capacity.
cost-push inflation: Price-level pressure caused by higher production costs or an adverse supply change.
economic inactivity: Being outside the labour force rather than classified as employed or unemployed.
time-related underemployment: Employed people want and are available for more work hours under the stated statistical criteria.
primary income: Cross-border income from production inputs, including relevant labour and investment income.
secondary income: Current transfers between residents and non-residents without a corresponding current exchange.
aggregate expenditure: Economy-wide expenditure on consumption, investment, public purchases and net exports under the stated accounting scope.
net exports: Exports minus imports for the stated goods/services scope.
savings ratio: Saving as a share of disposable income over the stated period.
wealth effect: A change in spending associated with a change in the value of household assets, other relevant factors held constant.
gross investment: Productive investment including replacement of depreciated capital.
net investment: Gross investment less depreciation over the stated period.
government purchases: Public expenditure directly buying goods or services within the stated accounting period and scope.
transfer payment: A payment without a corresponding purchase of current goods or services.
non-price competitiveness: Ability to attract demand through quality, reliability, service or other attributes beyond price.
exchange-rate quotation: The stated units of one currency per unit of another, needed to interpret an exchange-rate change.
short-run aggregate supply: Planned real national output at different price levels under the stated short-run cost conditions.
long-run aggregate supply: Sustainable real output under the stated long-run productive-capacity model.
labour productivity: Output per unit of labour input, with the input measure specified.
productive capacity: The output an economy can sustainably produce with its resources, technology and institutions under the stated conditions.
income flow: Income received over a specified period.
net wealth: Assets less liabilities at a specified date.
injection · ⁨注入⁩: Spending entering the domestic circular flow through investment, public purchases or exports.
withdrawal: Income leaving domestic spending rounds through saving, taxation or imports.
equilibrium real output: Real national output consistent with planned aggregate demand and supply in the stated model.
aggregate supply shift: A change in planned output at each general price level because a supply determinant changes.
marginal propensity to withdraw: The share of additional income withdrawn through saving, taxation and imports on a consistent income base.
autonomous injection: An initial spending increase treated as independent of the induced income changes in the stated model.
potential growth: An increase in estimated sustainable productive capacity over time.
fiscal space: Room to fund public priorities under the government’s financing constraints.
material living standards: Access to goods and services supporting material wellbeing.
emissions intensity: Emissions per specified unit of output.
income inequality: Differences in the distribution of income across people or groups.
output gap: Actual real output minus estimated sustainable potential, commonly expressed as a percentage of potential.
trend growth: The underlying long-run rate of real-output growth distinguished from short-run fluctuations.

2.3.6 · Macroeconomic objectives and policies

Evaluate demand-side and supply-side policies
Analyse policy conflicts and time lags
Distinguish the six prescribed macroeconomic objectives and suitable measures
Interpret budget, current-account, inflation, employment and distribution evidence without conflating them
Explain all four prescribed objective conflicts using conditional mechanisms
Interpret movements and shifts of a short-run Phillips curve without claiming a permanent trade-off
Explain all five prescribed market-based supply-side instruments
Evaluate productivity, competition and incentive effects with distribution and enforcement limits
Explain all five prescribed interventionist supply-side instruments
Compare supply-side policies using capacity, additionality, timing, cost and stakeholder evidence
Distinguish fiscal/monetary and reflationary/deflationary demand policy
Analyse spending and taxation instruments with explicit multiplier and budget limits
Explain interest rates, QE, lending criteria and reserve/liquidity instruments
Distinguish central-bank reserves, deposits and actual credit responses
Explain monetary implementation, inflation targeting, government banking and last-resort lending
Compare demand-side strengths and weaknesses for demand and supply shocks

monetary policy: Policy influencing interest rates and monetary conditions.
supply-side policy: Policy aimed at improving productive capacity or efficiency.
government budget balance: Government revenue less total government expenditure over a period.
macroeconomic objective: An economy-wide outcome that policy seeks to improve or maintain.
short-run Phillips curve: A conditional short-run relationship between inflation and unemployment with expectations and supply conditions specified.
policy conflict: A situation in which pursuing one objective makes another harder to achieve under the stated conditions.
deregulation: Removing or simplifying regulations, with the affected market and safeguards specified.
privatization: Transfer of an enterprise or asset from public to private ownership.
additionality: Activity caused by a policy beyond what would have occurred without it.
interventionist supply-side policy: Public action intended to improve productive resources, productivity or access to capacity.
fiscal policy: Policy changes to government spending and taxation.
reflationary policy: Policy intended to increase aggregate demand under the stated conditions.
quantitative easing: Central-bank asset purchases financed by creation of central-bank money, intended to ease monetary conditions.
central-bank reserves: Balances eligible financial institutions hold at the central bank for settlement and related purposes.
lender of last resort: A central-bank role providing emergency liquidity under defined conditions when ordinary funding is unavailable.
liquidity shortfall: Insufficient readily available payment resources when obligations fall due, distinct from net asset value.

3.3.1–3.3.3 · Firms, costs and market structures

Calculate revenue, costs and profit
Explain scale, profit maximisation and contestability
Distinguish every prescribed business form without equating ownership with objectives
Compare SMEs and corporations using explicit size measures and contextual definitions
Classify organic growth, mergers/takeovers and all four integration types
Evaluate each integration type using specific gains, risks and stakeholder effects
Explain all prescribed growth constraints and why some firms remain small
Evaluate firm growth and demergers for businesses, workers and consumers
Distinguish profit, revenue, sales-volume maximization and satisficing
Use decision conditions with explicit constraints and explain ownership/control conflicts
Calculate TR, AR and MR with consistent finite or point conventions
Relate revenue changes to PED and explain why MR differs from price under downward-sloping demand
Explain diminishing returns with at least one fixed input
Link total, marginal and average product to variable and marginal costs under stated input prices
Calculate every prescribed total, average and marginal cost measure
Explain marginal/average curve relationships and distinguish fixed/variable from short-/long-run costs
Explain every prescribed internal/external scale benefit and diseconomy source
Interpret LRAC and minimum efficient scale without equating size with inevitable efficiency
Distinguish normal/supernormal economic profit and losses with opportunity costs included
Compare short-run operation/shutdown and long-run exit using avoidable costs
Distinguish allocative, productive and dynamic efficiency from X-inefficiency
Evaluate market structures using assumptions, benchmarks and time horizons
Calculate n-firm concentration ratios from consistent market-share evidence
Evaluate concentration without treating a ratio as proof of collusion, dominance or weak contestability
Explain competitive assumptions and short-/long-run profit-maximizing equilibrium
Evaluate shutdown, allocative efficiency and productive efficiency under explicit assumptions
Explain monopolistic-competition assumptions and all three differentiation channels
Analyse short-/long-run equilibrium and compare productive/allocative efficiency with product variety
Explain few-firm interdependence without equating concentration with collusion
Explain all six prescribed barrier sources and distinguish sunk from recoverable costs
Read two-firm/two-choice payoffs and check each best response
Explain cartels, price leadership, price wars and collusion incentives with stakeholder effects
Distinguish price wars, predatory pricing and limit pricing
Evaluate every prescribed non-price channel for firms, consumers, employees and suppliers
Explain monopoly assumptions, barriers and profit-maximizing output/price
Evaluate firm/consumer effects and productive, allocative and dynamic efficiency
Explain natural monopoly using relevant-market cost comparisons
Evaluate marginal-cost, average-cost and organizational responses with finance/quality constraints
Explain market power, segmentation, resale restrictions and elasticity differences
Compare discrimination with uniform pricing using profits, consumer surplus and output rather than a universal welfare claim

marginal cost: Change in total cost per additional output unit over a stated interval, or its derivative in a smooth model.
contestability: The extent to which potential entry disciplines existing firms.
co-operative: An enterprise owned and governed for its members under its stated rules.
joint venture: An agreed collaboration with shared control or resources for a particular business purpose.
vertical integration: Combining activities at different stages of a production or distribution chain.
horizontal integration: Combining firms at the same production stage in the relevant market.
demerger: Separation of previously combined business activities into distinct enterprises.
growth constraint: A factor limiting viable or desired business expansion in the stated context.
satisficing: Choosing an outcome meeting an acceptable target rather than maximizing one measure.
principal-agent problem: A conflict arising when an agent’s incentives or information differ from the principal’s interests.
marginal revenue: Change in total receipts per additional unit over a stated interval, or its point derivative in a smooth model.
average revenue: Total revenue divided by output; equal to price under uniform pricing.
marginal product: Extra output per additional unit of a specified input, other conditions stated.
diminishing marginal returns: Eventually smaller output increments from additional variable input when another input and technology are fixed.
average fixed cost: Fixed cost divided by positive output.
minimum efficient scale: The smallest scale/output attaining the minimum long-run average cost under stated conditions.
X-inefficiency: Actual resource cost above an attainable efficient benchmark because resources are not used efficiently.
normal profit: The required return included in economic cost; zero economic profit when it is just covered.
shutdown point: The short-run threshold where operating receipts just cover avoidable operating costs under the stated model.
allocative efficiency: Output allocation where marginal social benefit equals marginal social cost under the stated benchmark.
dynamic efficiency: Improvements in products, methods or resource use over time.
concentration ratio: The combined share of the n largest independent firms in a defined market.
market definition: The justified product, geographic and time scope used to identify competition.
price taker: A firm unable to influence the market price through its own output choice in the stated model.
competitive equilibrium: Consistent market and firm decisions under the stated competitive assumptions and time horizon.
product differentiation: Differences in features, marketing or distribution that make customers distinguish firms’ products.
excess capacity: Output below the minimum-average-cost scale in the stated long-run model, not necessarily a direct measure of physically idle equipment.
oligopoly: A market dominated by a few significant firms with interdependent decisions.
sunk cost: Expenditure that cannot be recovered when an activity is abandoned.
barrier to entry: An obstacle making entry into a market harder or less viable.
patent: Protection restricting use of a specified invention under the applicable rules and scope.
interdependence: A firm’s outcome depends on its decisions and the anticipated responses of significant rivals.
Nash equilibrium: A combination of choices where no player can improve its payoff by changing only its own choice.
dominant strategy: A choice giving a player its highest payoff for every stated rival choice.
cartel: A group coordinating decisions such as prices or output.
price leadership: A pattern where other firms follow a leading firm’s price changes.
limit pricing: Pricing intended to make potential entry unattractive under the stated entry-cost and expectation conditions.
non-price competition: Rivalry through product, information, branding, access or service rather than mainly price changes.
predatory pricing: A strategy sacrificing current returns to exclude rivals with intended later recovery of losses.
after-sales service: Support for customers after purchase, such as repair or maintenance.
monopoly power: Ability to influence price in a defined market, constrained by demand and alternatives.
welfare loss: Forgone net social benefit relative to a specified feasible benchmark.
economic profit: Revenue less all economic costs, including normal returns.
natural monopoly: A technology/demand situation where one provider supplies the relevant market at lower total cost than multiple providers.
average-cost pricing: Setting a price to cover average economic cost at a chosen output, with normal returns included.
third-degree price discrimination: Different prices for identifiable groups or markets beyond corresponding cost differences.
arbitrage: Buying in a lower-price market and reselling in a higher-price market, which can undermine segmentation.

3.3.4–3.3.5 · Labour markets and intervention

Explain marginal revenue product and wage differences
Evaluate unions, minimum wages and competition policy

derived demand: Demand for an input arising from demand for its output.
monopsony: A market with a dominant buyer.

4.3.1–4.3.3 · Globalisation, trade and payments

Use comparative advantage and evaluate protection
Analyse exchange rates, current-account imbalance and integration

comparative advantage: The ability to produce at a lower opportunity cost.
current account: A record including trade in goods and services and income flows.

4.3.4–4.3.6 · Development, inequality and the state

Distinguish growth, poverty, inequality and development
Evaluate finance, aid, debt, institutions and sustainable strategies

development: Improvement in people's capabilities and living conditions.
inequality · ⁨不平等⁩: Unequal distribution of income, wealth or opportunities.

Preparing for this qualification · ⁨备考指南⁩

WEC11/WEC12 are IAS units: 105 minutes, six MCQs (6 marks), five short answers (20), a five-part source question (34), and ONE essay selected from two (20). WEC13/WEC14 are IA2 units: 120 minutes, six MCQs (6), a five-part source question (34), and TWO essays selected from three (40). Each unit totals 80 marks and contributes 25% of IAL. WEC13 first assessment January 2020; WEC14 June 2020. WEC13 may draw on Units 1–2; WEC14 on Units 1–3. No coursework. Structure verified on specification physical pages 35, 43 and 54; qualification marking/rubric certification remains pending.
IAS assesses Units 1–2 only. IAL adds Units 3–4; do not substitute the UK Economics A themes or Cambridge paper structure.

Teaching coverage still needed · ⁨仍需教学覆盖内容⁩

All four IAL units have a 301-target source ledger. All 159 IAS targets and 51 WEC13 business/cost/competition/monopoly targets link to dedicated teaching; exact depth and assessment certification remain. The other 91 IA2 targets need deeper teaching/assessments; all 52 recent paper pairs require leaf-level review.
Reviewed runtime bank remains unavailable; no practice registry promotion.

Specifications and sample documents · ⁨课程大纲和样件文件⁩

Course materials · ⁨课程资料⁩

Course preparation · ⁨课程准备⁩

Documents are available. Board-specific notes, assessments and interactive past-paper practice are not yet available for every course. · ⁨文档已提供。并非所有课程都具备考试局特定的注释、测评及交互式历年真题练习。⁩

Lessons · ⁨课程⁩ →