HSK 4 Grammar

全 in front of a noun scoops up "the whole, entire" thing in one sweep. It bonds to a small set of "whole-able" nouns — 身 (body), 家 (family), 国 (country), 世界 (world), 校 (school), 年 (year) — and calls for a 都 in the predicate. The one rule to burn in: 全 takes no 的.

Structure: 全 + Noun + 都 + Predicate

our我们wǒ menwhole family全家quán jiāall都dōuhave been to去过qù guoBeijing北京Běi jīng。

Our whole family has been to Beijing.

this这个zhè geplace地方dì fangall year全年quán nián都dōuvery很hěnhot热rè。

This place is hot all year round.

Remember: 全 = the whole thing in one sweep — and never 的 (全家 ✓, 全的家 ✗). It almost always sends a 都 downstream to echo the "all."

Watch out

• It attaches only to "whole" nouns (身, 家, 国, 校, 年…).
• Advanced flip: 全都不去 = "none go at all"; 不全都去 = "not all go" — where 不 sits changes everything.

死了 after an adjective cranks it to the limit — "… to death, extremely." It's the exact match of English "scared to death," "bored to death": vivid, casual, and slanted toward unpleasant feelings. The subject is optional.

Structure: (Subject +) Adjective + 死了

I'm我wǒhungry饿èto death死了sǐ le！

I'm starving!

today今天jīn tiāntired累lèito death死了sǐ le！

I'm exhausted today!

this这件zhè jiànoutfit衣服yī fuugly丑chǒuto death死了sǐ le。

This outfit is hideous.

Remember: 死了 = English "…to death" (累死了 = "dead tired"). It's the drama-queen cousin of 极了 — louder, more informal, mostly for misery (累, 饿, 热, 丑) — and it attaches bare, no 得.

Watch out

• Reach for it when the feeling is bad and you want to exaggerate; for neutral praise, 极了 or 得很 fit better.

Read 差不多 literally and it explains itself: 差 (difference) + 不 (not) + 多 (much) = "not much difference." Hence "about the same, more or less, almost." It can stand alone as a predicate, link two things (A 跟 B 差不多), or work as an adverb before a quantity.

Structure: Subject + 差不多 · A + 跟 / 和 + B + 差不多

these这zhètwo两个liǎng gewords词cí的demeanings意思yì siabout the same差不多chà bu duō。

These two words mean about the same thing.

Shanghai上海Shàng hǎiand和héNew York纽约Niǔ yuēmuch the same差不多chà bu duō。

Shanghai and New York are much the same.

Remember: 差(difference) 不(not) 多(much) — "not much off." Decode the three characters and the meaning ("about the same / almost there") falls out for free.

Watch out

• As an adverb it also means "almost (there)": 差不多了 ("that's about enough"), 差不多十点 ("around ten").
• For several items, add 都: 这几个都差不多.

看来 offers up the speaker's read of a situation — "it seems, apparently." Use 在 + person + 看来 for "in someone's view." The pitfall is confusing it with 看起来 ("it looks like" from physical appearance): 看来 is a judgement in your head, 看起来 is what your eyes report.

Structure: 看来 + Judgement · 在 + Person + 看来

it seems看来kàn láihe他tānot不bùcoming来lái了le。

It seems he's not coming.

in在zàimy我wǒview看来kàn láithis，这个zhè geplan计划jì huàwon't work行不通xíng bu tōng。

In my view, this plan won't work.

Remember: 看来 = "drawing it together, I reckon…" (a conclusion); 看起来 = "it appears to the eye." 来 is the "arriving at a verdict" part — you've weighed things and landed on a view.

Watch out

• 在我看来 is "in my opinion" — a personal verdict, not a fact.

正好 is a happy bullseye — 正 (exactly) + 好 (right) — "just right" (in size, time, or amount) or "as it happens, happen to." It plays both adjective and adverb.

Structure: Subject + 正好 + Verb Phrase · … 正好 (adjective)

you你nǐcame来lái了leI！我wǒwas just about to正好zhèng hǎo要yàolook for找zhǎoyou你nǐ。

You're here! I was just about to look for you.

this这件zhè jiànoutfit衣服yī fu的desize大小dà xiǎojust right正好zhèng hǎo。

This outfit is just the right size.

Remember: 正(exactly) 好(right) = a lucky bullseye — the right size, the right moment, the right amount, all landing at once.

Watch out

• Adverb (正好要走 "just about to leave") and adjective (大小正好 "just the right size") — same word, two roles.

只好 is the only option left — 只 (only) + 好 (good/workable) — "the only workable choice, so I'll take it (reluctantly)." English: "have no choice but to, can only, had to."

Structure: (Situation,) (Subject +) 只好 + Verb Phrase

the restaurants餐厅cān tīngall都dōuclosed关门guān mén了lewe，我们wǒ menhad no choice but to只好zhǐ hǎogo去qùeat吃chīfast food快餐kuài cān。

The restaurants were all closed, so we had no choice but to get fast food.

I我wǒforgot忘wàng了leto book预约yù yuēso had to，只好zhǐ hǎogo去qùqueue排队pái duì。

I forgot to book, so I had to queue.

Remember: 只好 = "the ONLY good option left" — you do it, but you'd rather not. For a stronger, more forced "have to," step up to 不得不.

Watch out

• It always carries a whiff of reluctance — the choice isn't a happy one.

This 又 has nothing to do with "again." In front of 不 / 没 it adds a defensive, argumentative kick — "(but) it's not even / it's not as if …." You'll hear it constantly with 干吗 / 干嘛 ("why on earth").

Structure: 又 + 不 / 没 + Predicate

ask问wènme我wǒwhy干吗gàn máI？我wǒit's not as if又yòudon't不bùknow知道zhī dào。

Why ask me? It's not as if I'd know.

these这些zhè xiēdishes菜càiit's not as if又yòuhaven't没méigone off坏huàiwhy，为什么wèi shén me要yàothrow out扔rēng？

The food hasn't even gone off — why throw it out?

Remember: 又 + 不/没 = the "it's-not-as-if" shrug (又不是, 又没…) — a verbal eye-roll defending yourself. It is not the "again" 又, even though it's the same character.

Watch out

• It needs that defensive context — without an implied "so why…?", it reads as plain "again."

The adverb 可 slams an adjective home — "really, so" — usually against what you'd expect. It's informal and northern-flavoured, and it almost always closes with 了.

Structure: 可 + Adjective + 了

this这只zhè zhīpuppy小狗xiǎo gǒuso可kěnaughty淘气táo qì了le！

This puppy is so naughty!

he他tāreally可kěimpressive优秀yōu xiù了le！

He's really impressive!

Remember: 可…了 wraps an adjective in a "wow, really!" (可爱了, 可贵了). It nearly always bookends with 了, and has a chatty, northern ring.

Watch out

• 可 also means "but," can stress a verb (我可没说), or mean "finally" — context picks the sense.

原来 wears two hats: "original(ly), former" (原来的 + noun), and "so it turns out / all along" — that lightbulb moment when you suddenly grasp something you'd missed.

Structure: 原来 + 的 + Noun · Subject + 原来 + Predicate

so原来yuán láiyou你nǐare是shìa teacher老师lǎo shī啊a！

Oh, so you're a teacher!

we我们wǒ menoriginally原来yuán láilived住zhùin在zàiPudong浦东Pǔ dōng。

We originally lived in Pudong.

Remember: both senses share "the way things really were all along." Realisation: 原来如此 ("ah, so that's it!"). "Former": 原来的价格 ("the original price"). Contrast 本来 ("originally, but it changed") at the end of this level.

Watch out

• The "aha!" sense is the one that surprises learners — 原来 ≠ "originally" there, it's "it turns out."

差点 = "off by a hair" — something nearly happened, usually something bad, and the feeling is relief that it didn't. The iron rule: whatever follows 差点 did not actually happen.

Structure: Subject + 差点 (+ 就) + Predicate (+ 了)

the car车chēalmost差点chà diǎnhit撞到zhuàng dàome我wǒ。

The car almost hit me (it didn't).

I我wǒtoday今天jīn tiānalmost差点chà diǎnwas late迟到chí dào了le。

I was almost late today.

Remember: 差点 = "missed it by THAT much" → the thing did not happen (and good thing too). The famous quirk: 差点没摔倒 still means "almost fell" — the 没 adds feeling, not logic.

Watch out

• For a wanted outcome, 差点没 flips to relief it did happen: 差点没赶上 ("only just caught it").

从来 ("from the very start") with 都(是) means "always, have always." But you'll meet it far more often in the negative — 从来不 / 从来没 = "never (not once)."

Structure: Subject + 从来 + 都(是) + Predicate

he他tāalways从来cóng láihas都dōubeen like this这样zhè yàng。

He's always been like this.

I我wǒnever从来cóng lái不bùdrink喝酒hē jiǔ。

I never drink.

Remember: 从来 = "from the beginning until now." Positive form needs 都 (从来都…); negative is the everyday one — 从来不 / 从来没 = "never, not a single time."

Watch out

• Don't drop the 都 in the positive: 从来都很努力 ✓, not 从来很努力.

As a connector, 结果 ("result") means "as a result, and in the end" — and it usually drags in an unexpected or unwelcome outcome. It opens the second clause with a twist.

Structure: Reason / Situation ，结果 + Result

she她tādressed穿chuān得devery很hěnlightly少shǎoas a result，结果jié guǒcaught a cold感冒gǎn mào了le。

She dressed too lightly and ended up catching a cold.

he他tādrove开kāi得detoo太tàifast快kuàias a result，结果jié guǒhit撞到zhuàng dào了lesomeone人rén。

He drove too fast and ended up hitting someone.

Remember: 结果 = "the (often nasty) upshot." It sets up a payoff that's usually bad or surprising — "…and as a result, of course, X."

Watch out

• It's also a plain noun ("result"): 考试结果 ("the exam results").

够 means "enough, sufficient." Its trick is that position flips the mood: before a verb/adjective it's "enough to …" (够吃, 够大); after certain verbs it's "fed up" (受够了). It often takes 了.

Structure: 够 + Verb / Adjective (+ 了) · Verb + 够 + 了

we我们wǒ menbought买mǎi的defood菜càienough够gòuto eat吃chī了le。

We bought enough food.

I我wǒput up with it受shòuenough够gòu了le！

I've had enough!

Remember: 够 before = "enough to" (够高); 受够了 / V够了 after = "had enough OF it." Same word, opposite feeling, decided by which side of the verb it sits.

Watch out

• 吃够了 = "sick of eating it" (fed up), not "ate enough" — mind that "fed-up" tilt.

甚至 hauls in the most extreme or surprising case — "even, so much that." It frequently links arms with 连 … 都 / 也 for extra punch.

Structure: ……，甚至 (连) + Extreme Case + 都 / 也 …

he他tātoo太tàibusy忙máng了leeven，甚至shèn zhìto eat吃chīlunch午饭wǔ fàn的detime时间shí jiān都dōuhasn't没有méi yǒu。

He's so busy he doesn't even have time for lunch.

this这个zhè gequestion问题wèn tívery很hěnsimple简单jiǎn dāneven，甚至shèn zhì连liána child孩子hái zi都dōuknows知道zhī dào。

It's so simple even a child knows the answer.

Remember: 甚至 = "…even THIS!" — it reaches for the most extreme example to drive a point home, often hand-in-hand with 连…都.

Watch out

• It escalates — the thing after 甚至 should be the most surprising item, not just another one.

Beyond "or," 还是 before a verb settles on the choice you prefer after weighing things up — "had better, I'd rather (after all)." It loves to close with 吧.

Structure: Subject + 还是 + Verb Phrase + 吧

after all还是hái shìtomorrow明天míng tiāngo去qù吧ba。

Let's go tomorrow after all.

you你nǐhad better还是hái shìnot别biégo去qù了le。

You'd better not go.

Remember: 还是…吧 = "on reflection, better to…" — a verdict reached after mulling it over. Distinct from 还是 = "or" (in questions) or "still."

Watch out

• The 吧 softens it into a gentle suggestion — dropping it makes the decision sound firmer.

最好 ("best") moonlights as an adverb to give gentle advice — "had better, it would be best to."

Structure: Subject + 最好 + Predicate

you你nǐhad better最好zuì hǎofirst先xiānrest休息xiū xia bit一下yí xià。

You'd better rest a bit first.

outside外面wài miàncold冷lěngbest to，最好zuì hǎomore多duōwear穿chuān点diǎn。

It's cold out — best wear a bit more.

Remember: 最好 = "the best thing would be…" — advice with a soft touch, gentler than 应该 or 得. Negative: 最好别 ("had best not").

Watch out

• It's a suggestion, not a rule — for an obligation use 得 / 必须 instead.

不得不 stacks a double negative — "not (不) able to not (得不) do" — into a reluctant, unavoidable "have to." It's more forced and grudging than 必须.

Structure: Subject + 不得不 + Verb

the lift电梯diàn tīagain又yòubroke坏huài了lewe，我们wǒ menhad to不得不bù dé bùclimb爬páthe stairs楼梯lóu tī。

The lift broke again, so we had to take the stairs.

you你nǐtoo太tàigood厉害lì hai了leI，我wǒhave to不得不bù dé bùadmit it承认chéng rèn。

You're so good — I have to admit it.

Remember: 不得不 = "can't NOT do it" (two negatives cancelling to a grudging yes). It shouts no way out; 必须 is the calmer, neutral "must / it's required."

Watch out

• Don't miscount the negatives — 不得不去 means "have to go," not "can't go."

到底 = "all the way to the bottom" — and it digs for the real answer. Three jobs: pressing in a question ("on earth, exactly"), "after all / in the end," and "finally" (like 终于).

Structure: …… 到底 …… · 到底 + Verb + 了

you你nǐon earth到底dào dǐwant想xiǎngto say说shuōwhat什么shén me？

What on earth are you trying to say?

the weather天气tiān qìfinally到底dào dǐwarmed up暖和nuǎn huo了le。

The weather has finally warmed up.

Remember: 到底 = "get to the BOTTOM of it." In a question → "on earth / exactly" (你到底去不去？); in a statement → "after all / finally."

Watch out

• In a yes-no question, use the V-not-V form: 你到底去不去？ ("are you going or not?").

究竟 is the more formal twin of 到底 — it sharpens a question hunting for a specific fact (a name, a time, a reason): "exactly, on earth."

Structure: 究竟 + Question Word …

this这个zhè geperson人rénon earth究竟jiū jìngis是shìwho谁shéi？

Who on earth is this person?

we我们wǒ menexactly究竟jiū jìngstill还háihave to要yàowait等děnghow long多久duō jiǔ？

Exactly how much longer do we have to wait?

Remember: 究竟 = 到底 in a suit. Same "on earth / exactly" in questions, just a more written, formal register.

Watch out

• Both press a question; 究竟 simply sounds more bookish than the everyday 到底.

The adverb 刚 (or 刚刚) marks an action that happened a short time ago — "just." It sits right before the verb, and with a duration it needs no "ago" word.

Structure: Subject + 刚 + Verb

we我们wǒ menjust刚gāngfound out知道zhī dào。

We just found out.

he他tājust刚gāngcame to来láiChina中国Zhōng guótwo两个liǎng gemonths ago月yuè。

He came to China just two months ago.

Remember: 刚 = adverb "just," glued to the verb (刚到) — and "two months ago" needs no extra word: 刚来两个月. Don't mix it up with the noun 刚才 ("a moment ago") — see the comparison file later.

Watch out

• 刚 + duration measures time from now; 刚才 marks a point in the recent past.

Double up 一 + measure word and you get something happening one unit at a time — "one by one, step by step." 个 is the default measure word, but slot in whichever fits the noun.

Structure: 一 + MW + 一 + MW (+ Noun)

don't别biéall shout吵chǎoone，一个yí geby one一个yí gespeak说shuō。

Don't all talk at once — one at a time.

the child孩子hái ziday一天yì tiānby day一天yì tiāngrows up长大zhǎng dà。

The child grows up day by day.

Remember: repeat the measure word → "one ___ at a time": 一个一个 (one by one), 一步一步 (step by step), 一天一天 (day by day), 一遍一遍 (over and over).

Watch out

• Match the measure word to the noun — 一步一步 for steps, 一个一个 for countable things.

本来 means "originally, in the first place" — and it usually sets up that things later changed course. It often runs with 是 … 的 plus a 但是 / 可是 clause; with 就 it flips to "of course (it always was)."

Structure: Subject + 本来 (+ 是) … 的 ，但是 … · 本来就 …

I我wǒoriginally本来běn láimeant要yàoto go去qù的debut，可是kě shìthen后来hòu láigot sick病bìng了le。

I'd meant to go, but then I got sick.

moving house搬家bān jiāto begin with本来běn lái就jiùvery很hěntroublesome麻烦má fan。

Moving house is a hassle to begin with.

Remember: 本来 sets up a U-turn — "originally X… but then Y." Contrast 原来 (a sudden realisation). And 本来就 = "of course / obviously — it always was."

Watch out

• If nothing changed and you mean "it turns out," you want 原来, not 本来.

Park 就 in front of the subject or quantity and it spotlights how little there is — "only, just (this one)." It often rides with 一个 / 一次.

Structure: 就 + Subject + Predicate · 就 + Verb + Number + MW

everyone大家dà jiā都dōuleft work下班xià bān了leonly，就jiùthe boss老板lǎo bǎnstill还háihasn't没méileft走zǒu。

Everyone's left work; only the boss is still here.

I我wǒonly就jiùbeen there去过qù guoonce一次yí cì。

I've only been there once.

Remember: like 才 + number, this 就 shrinks things to "only / just" (就老板, 就一次), underlining smallness. It's a different 就 from the "right away / as early as" one.

Watch out

• Context tells the two 就's apart: a small quantity nearby → "only"; a time → "as early as / then."

千万 (literally "thousand ten-thousand") is an urgent plea — "be sure to / whatever you do (don't) …." The huge numbers are the emphasis. It almost always heads a command, paired with 别 / 不要 / 要.

Structure: 千万 + (别 / 不要 / 要) + Verb Phrase

whatever you do千万qiān wàndon't别biéforget忘wàng了leto bring带dàiyour passport护照hù zhào。

Whatever you do, don't forget your passport.

on the way路上lù shàngdo be sure to千万qiān wàn要yàobe careful小心xiǎo xīn。

Do be careful on the way.

Remember: big numbers = big urgency. 千万 piles "thousand" on "ten-thousand" to mean "I really, really mean it." The go-to shape is 千万别… ("whatever you do, DON'T…").

Watch out

• It belongs in pleas and warnings — not a neutral statement.

恐怕 has 恐 ("fear") right in it, and that's the feel: a likely but unwelcome prediction softened with "I'm afraid that, I worry that." It opens the clause, ideally before the subject, often with 要 / 会.

Structure: (Reason,) 恐怕 + Subject + Predicate

today今天jīn tiānI'm afraid恐怕kǒng pàgoing to要yàorain下雨xià yǔ。

I'm afraid it's going to rain today.

I'm afraid恐怕kǒng pàI我wǒtomorrow明天míng tiāncan't不能bù néngcome来lái。

I'm afraid I can't come tomorrow.

Remember: 恐怕 hides 恐 (fear) — it's a worried "I'm afraid…" about something unwelcome, never a cheerful guess. Place it before the subject for the most natural ring.

Watch out

• For a neutral "probably" (no dread), use 可能 instead.

竟然 (or just 竟) flags something surprising or hard to believe — "unexpectedly, actually, of all things." It sits after the subject. It's a near-match for 居然, just a touch milder.

Structure: Subject + 竟然 + Predicate

such a这么zhè mehard难nán的deproblem题tíhe，他tāactually竟然jìng rángot it做zuòright对duì了le。

Such a hard problem — and he actually got it right!

he他tāunexpectedly竟然jìng rán把bǎthis这zhè件jiànmatter事shìforgot忘wàng了le。

He actually forgot all about it!

Remember: 竟然 = a jaw-drop — "…and yet, of all things, X!" Best rendered "actually / of all things." ≈ 居然 (slightly stronger), opposite of 果然 ("sure enough, as expected").

Watch out

• It needs genuine surprise — drop it into a humdrum statement and it sounds off.

难道 turns a sentence into a rhetorical question of disbelief — "don't tell me …?, surely you don't …?". It usually closes with 吗 and fishes for agreement, not an answer. English has no single word for it.

Structure: 难道 + Rhetorical Question + 吗？

don't tell me难道nán dàoyou你nǐreally真的zhēn debelieve相信xiāng xìnhim他tā吗ma？

You don't actually believe him, do you?

today今天jīn tiānis是shìmy我wǒ的debirthday生日shēng rìdon't tell me，难道nán dàoyou你nǐdon't不bùknow知道zhī dào吗ma？

It's my birthday — don't tell me you forgot?

Remember: 难道 = a built-in "surely not…?!" It marks the whole sentence as rhetorical — you're pressing for the listener to agree, not to inform you. Usually 难道…吗？.

Watch out

• Don't answer a 难道 question literally — it's making a point, not seeking facts.

先 … 再 … lines two actions up in sequence — "first A, then B." As in HSK 3, the catch is that 再 here means "(and) then," not "again." Chain longer runs with 然后 / 接着.

Structure: 先 + Verb 1 ，再 + Verb 2

first先xiānwash hands洗手xǐ shǒuthen，再zàieat吃饭chī fàn。

Wash your hands first, then eat.

you你nǐshould要yàofirst先xiāndo做zuòhomework作业zuò yèthen，再zàiwatch看kànTV电视diàn shì。

Do your homework first, then watch TV.

Remember: in 先…再…, 再 = "and then" (the next stepping stone), not "again." Extend the chain with 然后 / 接着 for three or more steps.

Watch out

• Out of this pairing, 再 does mean "again / more" — it's the 先…再… frame that fixes the "then" reading.

Stack 也 ("also") and 都 ("all") to sweep up a whole group as well — "all … too." The order is locked: 也 comes before 都.

Structure: Subject + 也都 + Predicate

I'm我wǒvery很hěnwell好hǎomy，我wǒ的defamily家人jiā rénall too也都yě dōuvery很hěnwell好hǎo。

I'm well, and so is all my family.

adults大人dà rénlike喜欢xǐ huanthis这个zhè gerestaurant餐厅cān tīngthe kids，孩子们hái zi menall too也都yě dōulike it喜欢xǐ huan。

The adults like this restaurant, and the kids all do too.

Remember: 也 (also) + 都 (all) in a FIXED order — 也都, never 都也. Think "also-all": the whole group does it too.

Watch out

• Both adverbs sit before the verb together; you can't split them around it.

挺 … 的 is a laid-back "quite, pretty, rather" — a relaxed, conversational intensifier that almost always wraps up with 的. It's softer than 很 and pops up constantly in everyday chat.

Structure: 挺 + Adjective + 的

your你nǐboyfriend男朋友nán péng youpretty挺tǐnghandsome帅shuài的de。

Your boyfriend is pretty handsome.

lately最近zuì jìneveryone大家dà jiā都dōuquite挺tǐngbusy忙máng的de。

Everyone's been quite busy lately.

Remember: 挺 wants its 的 — 挺好的, never bare 挺好. Think of 挺…的 as a matched pair of bookends around the adjective. It's the casual, easygoing "pretty / quite," softer than 很 / 非常.

Watch out

• Leave off the 的 and it sounds unfinished to a native ear.

什么的 rounds off an informal list with a casual wave of the hand — "and so on, and stuff like that." It can even trail a single item when it's obvious what else belongs in the group.

Structure: Noun 1、Noun 2 (+ Noun 3) + 什么的

my我wǒgrandma奶奶nǎi naionly只zhǐeats吃chīvegetables蔬菜shū càitofu、豆腐dòu fuand so on什么的shén me de。

My grandma only eats vegetables, tofu, and the like.

maths数学shù xuéphysics、物理wù lǐand so on什么的shén me deI'm，我wǒ都dōunot不bùinterested感兴趣gǎn xìng qù。

Maths, physics and so on — I'm not interested in any of it.

Remember: 什么的 = the chatty "…and stuff" — it waves at the rest without listing it. Its formal, neutral twin is 等 / 等等 (next).

Watch out

• It's casual — fine in speech, too loose for formal writing.

等 or 等等 closes a list more formally — "etc., and so forth." One thing to unlearn from English: there's no comma before it. It can also sit before a summarising noun ("… 等 + category").

Structure: A、B、C + 等 / 等等 · A、B 等 + Category

watermelon西瓜xī guāgrapes、葡萄pú taoand so on等等děng děngI，我wǒall都dōulike喜欢xǐ huanto eat吃chī。

Watermelon, grapes and so on — I like them all.

Beijing北京Běi jīngShanghai、上海Shàng hǎiand other等děngcities城市chéng shì

cities such as Beijing and Shanghai

Remember: 等 / 等等 = formal "etc." — and NO comma before it (Chinese writes 苹果、香蕉等, not 苹果、香蕉，等). It's the written, neutral counterpart to the casual 什么的.

Watch out

• 等 can also wrap up before a category noun: 北京、上海等城市 ("cities such as …").

不过 means "but, however" — the gentlest of the "but" family, lighter and chattier than 但是 / 可是. It often just tacks a small qualification onto something otherwise positive.

Structure: …… ，不过 ……

this这件zhè jiànoutfit衣服yī fuI我wǒreally很hěnlike喜欢xǐ huanbut，不过bú guòa bit有点yǒu diǎnpricey贵guì。

I really like this outfit, but it's a bit pricey.

this这家zhè jiārestaurant餐厅cān tīngI我wǒhaven't没méibeen to去过qù guobut，不过bú guòI hear听说tīng shuōit's good不错bú cuò。

I've never been to this restaurant, but I hear it's good.

Remember: 不过 = the lightest "but" — 不(not) 过(get past), a small snag you can't quite step over. Softer than 但是 / 可是, and very conversational.

Watch out

• 不过 can also mean "only, merely" in other contexts (不过是个误会, "it's only a misunderstanding").

于是 chains a cause to the action it triggers — "and so, thereupon." The second event follows straight from the first. It's a storytelling, past-tense word, usually with 了, and often with 就.

Structure: …… ，于是 …… + 了

yesterday昨天zuó tiānsuddenly突然tū ránrained下雨xià yǔ了leand so，于是yú shìwe我们wǒ mencancelled取消qǔ xiāo了lethe picnic野餐yě cān。

It suddenly rained yesterday, so we cancelled the picnic.

the tickets票piàosold out卖光mài guāng了leso，于是yú shìwe我们wǒ menbought买mǎi了lescalped tickets黄牛票huáng niú piào。

The tickets sold out, so we bought scalped ones.

Remember: 于是 = past-tense "and so" — it narrates "X happened, whereupon Y followed." For a timeless, logical cause→effect ("because X, therefore Y"), use 所以 / 因此 instead.

Watch out

• It belongs to narration of completed events — it pairs with 了 (and often 就), not with future plans.

还有 tacks on a further point as an afterthought — "also, plus, and another thing." It tends to open a fresh sentence after a comma or full stop, the spoken "oh, and…".

Structure: ……。还有，……

you你nǐneed to需要xū yàotake medicine吃药chī yàoalso。还有hái yǒushould，要yàomore多duōrest休息xiū xi。

You need to take medicine. Also, get plenty of rest.

I我wǒwant要yàoa large大杯dà bēino，不要bú yàoice冰bīngand，还有hái yǒueasy on the，少shǎo放fàngsugar糖táng。

Large, no ice — and go easy on the sugar.

Remember: 还有 = "oh, and also…" — the casual afterthought, literally "still have (more to say)." Order-a-coffee energy: one more thing, then one more.

Watch out

• It's informal — for a weightier "in addition," reach for 另外.

另外 brings in a separate, additional point — "in addition, besides." It's a notch more formal than 还有 and usually teams up with 还 / 也 in the clause it adds. (It also means "another, separate.")

Structure: ……。另外，(Subject) 还 / 也 ……

I我wǒdon't have没méitime时间shí jiānto join参加cān jiābesides。另外lìng wàiI，我wǒalso也yěnot really不太bú tàiinterested感兴趣gǎn xìng qù。

I don't have time to join. Besides, I'm not really interested.

this这个zhè geflight航班háng bānoften经常jīng chángdelayed晚点wǎn diǎnin addition。另外lìng wàithe meals，飞机餐fēi jī cānalso也yěvery很hěnbad难吃nán chī。

This flight is often late. On top of that, the food is awful too.

Remember: 另外 = a SEPARATE extra point (另 = "other / separate") — more formal than 还有, and it likes a 还 / 也 to echo it. It also means "another (separate) one": 另外一个人.

Watch out

• The added clause usually carries 还 / 也 — 另外，我也…, not a bare 另外，我….

再说 piles on an extra, often clinching reason to back a decision — "besides, what's more, anyway." It's the "and another thing…" that seals the argument.

Structure: …… ，再说 ……

too太tàifar远yuǎn了lebesides，再说zài shuōI我wǒalso也yěhave no没méitime时间shí jiān。

It's too far — besides, I've no time anyway.

don't别biébuy it买mǎi了leanyway，再说zài shuōyou你nǐ也yědon't不bùneed it缺quē。

Don't buy it — anyway, you don't need it.

Remember: 再说 = "and what's MORE…" — it adds a reason that clinches what you just said. Don't confuse it with the 再说 in 先…再说 ("do X first, deal with it later").

Watch out

• It reinforces a decision — it adds backing, not just a neutral extra fact.

可是 and 但是 are the bread-and-butter words for "but." 但是 is a shade more formal and emphatic; 可是 a touch softer. Otherwise they swap freely, and both happily follow 虽然 ("although").

Structure: Statement ，可是 / 但是 + Contrary Statement

I我wǒlike喜欢xǐ huanhim他tābut，可是kě shìhe他tādoesn't不bùlike喜欢xǐ huanme我wǒ。

I like him, but he doesn't like me.

this这个zhè gejob工作gōng zuòvery很hěntiring累lèibut，但是dàn shìI我wǒreally很hěnlike it喜欢xǐ huan。

This job is tiring, but I really like it.

Remember: 但是 = firmer/formal, 可是 = softer/casual — twins otherwise. Both pair with 虽然 (虽然…但是…), and Chinese happily keeps both halves, unlike English ("Although… but…" is fine in Chinese).

Watch out

• Don't drop the 但是 after 虽然 — Chinese likes the matching pair where English uses only one.

而 links two related clauses, often pointing up a contrast — "but rather, while, and yet." It's an elegant, semi-written connector. Learn it through its two workhorse frames: 不是 A 而是 B and 是 A 而不是 B.

Structure: Sentence 1 + 而 + Sentence 2 · 不是 A ，而是 B

we我们wǒ menare是shìhere to来láiwork办事bàn shì的denot，而ér不是bú shìto来láihave fun玩wán的de。

We're here to work, not to have fun.

regret it后悔hòu huǐ的dethe one to人rénisn't不是bú shìme我wǒbut，而是ér shìyou你nǐyourself自己zì jǐ。

The one who'll regret it isn't me — it's you.

Remember: learn 而 through its frames: 不是 A 而是 B = "not A but (rather) B"; 是 A 而不是 B = "A, not B." Master those two and most uses of 而 click into place.

Watch out

• It's formal/literary in flavour but common in speech too, especially in those set frames.

The 来 here is a tiny bridge from a method to its purpose — "(use / by means of X) to do Y." It typically follows 用 or 通过 + a method, then 来 + the goal.

Structure: 用 / 通过 + Method + 来 + Verb Phrase

many很多hěn duōyoung people年轻人nián qīng rénuse用yòngphone手机shǒu jīAPPto来láiorder点diǎntakeaway外卖wài mài。

Lots of young people use phone apps to order takeaway.

we我们wǒ menshould应该yīng gāifind想xiǎnga way办法bàn fǎto来láisolve解决jiě juéthis这个zhè geproblem问题wèn tí。

We should find a way to solve this problem.

Remember: 来 = "in order to" — it joins the means (用/通过 X) to the goal (来 + verb). "Use the app 来 order food." The first half is the how, the 来 half is the why.

Watch out

• The 来 is optional but it makes the "so as to" link explicit and natural.

其中 reaches back into a group you've just named — "among them, of which, of these." It's the Chinese "of which / of whom," so it can't stand without a group already on the table for it to point at.

Structure: Group ，其中 ……

I我wǒhave有yǒufour四sì辆liàngcars汽车qì chēof which，其中qí zhōngthree三sān辆liàngare是shìBMWs宝马Bǎo mǎ。

I have four cars, three of which are BMWs.

so这么zhè memany多duōprojects项目xiàng mùof which，其中qí zhōngthe most最zuìdifficult难nán的deis是shìthe environmental环境huán jìngone项目xiàng mù。

Of all these projects, the hardest is the environmental one.

Remember: 其中 = "within that (group)" — 其 ("that") + 中 ("inside"). It always looks backward to a set already mentioned; 其中一个 = "one of them."

Watch out

• It can't open a brand-new topic — name the group first, then 其中.

Chinese builds a fraction back to front: denominator + 分之 + numerator — the bottom number comes first. It fits the language's big-to-small habit (whole first, then the slice). Percentages are just "out of 100" fractions: 百分之 + number.

Structure: Denominator + 分之 + Numerator

this这个zhè gefile文件wén jiànalready已经yǐ jīngdownloaded下载xià zǎi了letwo-thirds三分之二sān fēn zhī èr。

This file is already two-thirds downloaded.

my我wǒ的dephone手机shǒu jīonly只zhǐhas有yǒufive percent百分之五bǎi fēn zhī wǔ了le。

My phone's down to five percent.

Remember: bottom first, top last — read 分之 as "out of": 四分之三 = "of four parts (四分), three (之三)" = ¾. Percent is just 百分之 ("out of 100") + the number: 百分之五十 = 50%.

Watch out

• ¾ is 四分之三, never 三分之四 — getting the order backwards flips the fraction.

Here's a structure that looks like two questions but is really one. 吗 can close a clause that embeds a question word — "do you know who / what / where …?" The front carries a verb of knowing (知道, 了解, 认识), and the whole thing stays a plain yes/no question.

Structure: Confirmation (知道 …) + embedded Question + 吗？

you你nǐknow知道zhī dàohe他tāis是shìwho谁shéi吗ma？

Do you know who he is?

she她tādid say说过shuō guoshe她tālives住zhù在zàiwhere哪儿nǎr吗ma？

Did she say where she lives?

Remember: the 吗 makes it yes/no; the 谁 / 哪儿 inside is just part of the embedded clause. "Do you know [who he is]?" — you're asking whether they know, not "who?". Answer 知道 / 不知道.

Watch out

• The lead verb is one of knowing/saying: 知道, 了解, 明白, 认识, 说过.

Echo 吧 across two options and you lay out a dilemma — "if A …, but if B …." It has an indecisive, no-win ring, and the two options are usually both unappealing.

Structure: Option 1 + 吧，…… ；Option 2 + 吧，……

in winter冬天dōng tiāngo去qù吧batoo，太tàicold冷lěngin summer；夏天xià tiāngo去qù吧batoo，太tàihot热rè。

Go in winter and it's too cold; go in summer and it's too hot.

not不bùtell him说shuō吧bahe，他tāwill会huìget it wrong做错zuò cuòtell him；说shuō吧bahe，他tāwon't不bùbe happy高兴gāo xìng。

If I don't tell him he'll get it wrong; if I do, he'll be upset.

Remember: doubled 吧 = a no-win fork — "do A 吧, downside; do B 吧, downside." Picture a shrug at each branch: whichever you pick, it stings.

Watch out

• Both options should carry a drawback — that's what gives the pattern its trapped, can't-win feel.

A sentence-final 的 can add a tone of certainty or reassurance — "(it) definitely (is / will be)." It often rides with 会 or 一定会, sealing a promise or a confident prediction.

Structure: Statement (+ 会 …) + 的

I我wǒwon't不bù会huìlie to骗piànyou你nǐ的de。

I would never lie to you.

you你们nǐ menwill会huìsucceed成功chéng gōng的de。

You will succeed.

Remember: this 的 = a spoken full stop of conviction — "trust me, it's so." It's not the possessive 的. It loves a 会 / 一定会 ahead of it: 会成功的 ("you will make it").

Watch out

• Don't read this 的 as "of / 's" — here it carries tone, not ownership.

随着 ties one thing to another that moves in step with it — "along with, as, in the wake of." 随 means "follow," so the 随着 clause sets a moving backdrop and the main clause tracks it. It's formal in flavour and translates a dozen different ways.

Structure: 随着 + Noun (+ 的 + change) ，Subject + Predicate

as随着suí zhethe economy经济jīng jì的dedevelops发展fā zhǎnlife，生活shēng huómore and more越来越yuè lái yuècomfortable好hǎo。

As the economy develops, life keeps getting better.

the children孩子们hái zi menalong to随着suí zhethe music音乐yīn yuèstarted跳tiào起qǐ了ledancing舞wǔ。

The children started dancing along to the music.

Remember: 随 = "follow" — 随着 X means "keeping pace with X." Picture two things moving together: as the economy rises, life rises with it. The 随着 part is the lead, the main clause follows.

Watch out

• It's written/formal — in casual speech you'd often just use 越来越 or a plain cause clause.

These look like "on" and "under," but here they're abstract brackets. 在 … 上 frames the field or aspect something holds in — "in (the area of), in terms of, on the matter of." Its sibling 在 … 下 frames a condition — "under (such circumstances)."

Structure: 在 + Topic + 上 ，…… · 在 + Condition + 下 ，……

on在zàithis这个zhè gematter问题wèn tí上shàngour，我们wǒ men的deviews看法kàn fǎare the same一样yí yàng。

On this matter, our views are the same.

under在zàithese kinds of这种zhè zhǒngcircumstances情况qíng kuàng下xiàyou，你nǐwould会huìhow怎么zěn meact做zuò？

Under these circumstances, what would you do?

Remember: these are abstract, not literal: 在…上 = "in the area of" (在历史上 "in history," 在语法上 "grammatically"); 在…下 = "under (conditions)" (在帮助下 "with help"). Nothing is physically on top of or beneath anything.

Watch out

• Don't read them as real positions — 在这个问题上 is "on this issue," not "on top of a problem."

并 in front of a negative pushes back against an expectation — "(it's) actually not, contrary to what you'd think." Because it counters an assumption, it's the go-to for disagreeing or correcting. It only pairs with 不 or 没.

Structure: Subject + 并 + 不 / 没 + Verb / Adjective

in在zàiChina中国Zhōng guóstarting a business创业chuàng yèactually并bìngnot不bùeasy容易róng yì。

Starting a business in China actually isn't easy.

I我wǒactually并bìngdidn't没méisay说过shuō guothis这zhè句jù话huà。

I never actually said that.

Remember: 并不 / 并没 = "actually NOT — despite what you assume." Use it whenever you're correcting a wrong impression: "you think it's easy? 并不." It's a firm, slightly defensive negative.

Watch out

• It only attaches to 不 or 没 (并不, 并没) — never to a bare verb on its own.

The elegant, semi-classical frame 以 A 为 B means "take / regard A as B" — treating one thing as your basis, standard, or focus. It rings formal, and it's the engine behind a whole family of set phrases.

Structure: 以 + A + 为 + B

our我们wǒ mencompany公司gōng sītakes以yǐthe Asian亚洲Yà zhōumarket市场shì chǎngas为wéiits focus主zhǔ。

Our company focuses mainly on the Asian market.

many许多xǔ duōfirms企业qǐ yègrow发展fā zhǎnvery很hěnfast快kuàitake，以yǐMcDonald's麦当劳Mài dāng láoas为wéian example例lì。

Many firms have grown fast — take McDonald's as an example.

Remember: 以 A 为 B = "take A as your B." Memorise the set phrases and you've got it: 以…为主 ("mainly"), 以…为例 ("for example"), 以…为荣 ("proud of"), 以人为本 ("put people first"). The everyday paraphrase is 把 A 当作 B.

Watch out

• It's formal/written — in casual speech, 把 A 当作 B carries the same idea.

These causative verbs slot a person between the verb and what they end up doing — "make / let / ask / cause someone to …." Sort them by tone: 让 (everyday "make / let"), 叫 (colloquial "tell"), 请 (polite "ask / invite"), 使 (formal "cause"). At HSK 4 the result can be a verb or an adjective.

Structure: Subject + 让 / 叫 / 请 / 使 + Person + Predicate

you你nǐwhy为什么wèi shén menot不bùlet让ràngme我wǒgo去qù？

Why won't you let me go?

this这部zhè bùfilm电影diàn yǐngmakes让ràngpeople人rénvery很hěnmoved感动gǎn dòng。

This film is really moving.

his他tā的despeech演讲yǎn jiǎngmade使shǐthe audience听众tīng zhòngvery非常fēi chángexcited激动jī dòng。

His speech made the audience very excited.

Remember: four causatives, sorted by politeness: 使 (formal) → 让 (neutral) → 叫 (casual) → 请 (polite). New at HSK 4: the result can be an adjective of feeling — 让人感动 ("makes people moved"), 使人激动 ("excites people").

Watch out

• 让 covers both "make" and "let" — context decides which.

得看 / 要看 — literally "have to look at" — is the everyday "it depends on …." The factor it hinges on usually carries a question word.

Structure: 这 / 那 + 要看 / 得看 + Factor

that这zhèdepends on得看děi kànyour你nǐ的deschedule时间shí jiān。

That depends on your schedule.

whether I go去不去qù bu qùdepends on得看děi kànmy我wǒ的demood心情xīn qíng。

Whether I'll go depends on my mood.

Remember: 得看 = "(I'll) have to look at…" = "it depends on…". The deciding factor almost always holds a question word: 得看天气怎么样, 得看他愿不愿意. Quick fixed reply: 看情况 ("depends on the situation").

Watch out

• 得 here is děi ("have to"), not the structural 得 (de) of complements.

好像 softens a statement to an impression — "it seems, looks like, as if." With a subject it's "X seems …"; with no subject it's "it seems that …." It can pair with 似的 ("as if") at the end.

Structure: (Subject +) 好像 + Predicate

he他tāseems好像hǎo xiàngto be是shìBritish英国人Yīng guó rén。

He seems to be British.

it seems好像hǎo xiànggoing to要yàorain下雨xià yǔ了le。

It looks like it's going to rain.

Remember: 好像 = "seems / as if" — a soft hedge, literally "much resembles." No subject → "it seems that…" (好像有人敲门). Its formal twin is 似乎; don't mix it up with 以为 (a belief that turned out wrong).

Watch out

• It's softer than a flat statement — it signals you're not fully sure.

在于 pins down where something's essence or key rests — "lies in, consists in, is a matter of." It's a formal, essay-style verb.

Structure: Topic + 在于 + Key Point

success成功chéng gōnglies in在于zài yúperseverance坚持jiān chí。

Success lies in perseverance.

a gift礼物lǐ wùis about在于zài yúthe thought心意xīn yìnot，不bùabout在于zài yúhow costly贵重guì zhòng。

A gift is about the thought, not how costly it is.

Remember: 在于 = "the key lies IN…" (在 "at" + 于 "in") — points to where the heart of the matter sits. With a person it means "is up to": 去不去在于你自己 ("whether to go is up to you").

Watch out

• Formal and written — in speech you'd say 主要是 or 看 instead.

Chinese has a dedicated verb for a belief that turned out wrong: 以为. Whatever follows 以为 is the incorrect idea you held — the sentence usually carries a quiet "…but I was wrong."

Structure: Subject + 以为 + (wrong belief)

I我wǒthought以为yǐ wéihe他tāwas是shìGerman德国人Dé guó rén。

I thought he was German (he isn't).

don't别biéthink以为yǐ wéiI我wǒdon't不bùknow知道zhī dào。

Don't think I don't know.

Remember: 以为 = a belief that proved WRONG ("I thought X… turns out not"). For a belief you simply hold, use 觉得 / 想. The giveaway opener: 我还以为… ("I'd assumed (wrongly) that…").

Watch out

• Swapping 以为 for 觉得 changes the meaning — 觉得 makes no claim that you were mistaken.

通过 wears two hats: as a verb, "go through (a place) / pass (an exam)"; as a preposition, "by means of, via."

Structure: 通过 + Place / Exam (verb) · 通过 + Method / Agent ，…… (preposition)

I我wǒpassed通过tōng guò了lethis这个zhè geexam考试kǎo shì。

I passed this exam.

we我们wǒ menthrough通过tōng guòhis他tā的defriend朋友péng youfound找到zhǎo dào了lehim他tā。

We found him through his friend.

Remember: 通过 = "pass through" — through an exam/place (verb: 通过考试) or through a method/middleman (preposition: 通过朋友 "via a friend"). Compare 经过, which leans on "after a process."

Watch out

• As a preposition it sets up a means before the main clause: 通过努力，他成功了.

来自 is one compact verb for a source or origin — "come / originate from." It's more formal than 从 … 来, perfect for introductions, and it stretches to abstract sources too.

Structure: Subject + 来自 + Place / Source

I我wǒcome from来自lái zìChina中国Zhōng guó。

I'm from China.

my我wǒ的dethis这个zhè geidea想法xiǎng fǎcomes from来自lái zìeveryday life生活shēng huó。

This idea of mine comes from everyday life.

Remember: 来自 = "comes from" in one tidy word (来 "come" + 自 "from"). Great for intros (我来自…) and abstract origins (灵感来自…, "inspiration comes from…"). Casual version: 从…来.

Watch out

• It takes its source directly, with no 从: 来自中国 ✓, not 从来自中国.

A bare 来 can stand in for a more specific verb — "(let me) do it, your turn, have a go" — when the real action is obvious from context. It's a short phrase ending in 来 (sometimes 吧), usually with 我 or 你.

Structure: (让 +) Subject + 来 (+ 吧)

I我wǒdo it来lái吧ba。

Let me do it.

you你nǐwrite写xiě得denicely好看hǎo kànyou，你nǐdo it来lái吧ba。

You write nicely — you do it.

Remember: this 来 does NOT mean "come" — it's a placeholder for the obvious verb, like English "I'll get this." 我来 ("I'll do it"), 你来 ("your turn"), 让他自己来 ("let him have a go").

Watch out

• Only use it when the real action is clear from context — otherwise name the verb.

不用 means "(there's) no need to, don't have to" — it lifts an obligation. The classic trap: the negative of 要 ("need to") is 不用, not 不要 (which means "don't / don't want").

Structure: Subject + 不用 + Verb Phrase

no need to不用bú yòngworry担心dān xīn。

No need to worry.

children孩子hái zidon't need to不用bú yòngbuy买mǎia ticket票piào。

Children don't need to buy a ticket.

Remember: 要 ("need to") → 不用 ("needn't"), NOT 不要. 不用 cancels a need; 不要 is a prohibition ("don't"); 不能 = "can't"; 不应该 = "shouldn't." Pick by which one you're denying.

Watch out

• 不用谢 ("you're welcome") is literally "no need to thank" — the same 不用.

The auxiliary 得 — read děi here — is a blunt, spoken "have to, must," a practical necessity.

Structure: Subject + 得 + Verb Phrase

we我们wǒ menhave to得děigo走zǒu了le。

We have to go now.

the time时间shí jiāngetting late不早bù zǎo了leI，我wǒhave to得děigo home回家huí jiā了le。

It's getting late — I have to head home.

Remember: 得 = děi = "gotta." Its negative borrows 不用 ("needn't"), not 不得. And mind the reading: this is děi ("must"), a world away from the de of complements (跑得快) or the particles 的 / 地.

Watch out

• One character, three readings: děi (must), de (complement marker), dé (得到 "obtain"). Context picks it.

Between two verb phrases, 并 links them as "and, and also." It's picky: it joins verbs or clauses (never nouns — that's 和's job), usually two-syllable verbs, with a considered, written ring.

Structure: Verb Phrase 1 + 并 + Verb Phrase 2

I我wǒagree with同意tóng yìand并bìngsupport支持zhī chíyour你nǐ的dedecision决定jué dìng。

I agree with and support your decision.

the meeting会议huì yìdiscussed讨论tǎo lùnand并bìngapproved通过tōng guò了lethe plan计划jì huà。

The meeting discussed and approved the plan.

Remember: 并 joins verbs/clauses, 和 joins nouns. "Discussed 并 approved" (verbs) ✓; "tea 和 coffee" (nouns) ✓. 并 is the formal "and" for actions.

Watch out

• Don't use 并 between nouns — 茶并咖啡 ✗.

少 before a verb means do less of it — the staple of advice and gentle scolding. The bit that flips for English speakers: 少 comes before the verb, where English puts "less" after.

Structure: 少 + Verb (+ Object)

please请qǐngless少shǎoadd放fànga bit of点diǎnsalt盐yán。

Use a bit less salt, please.

less少shǎotalk说shuōnonsense废话fèi huà！

Quit the babbling!

Remember: 少 / 多 go BEFORE the verb — 少喝水 ("drink less water"), the reverse of English order. It softens a blunt "don't": 少管闲事 ("mind your own business," lit. "meddle less").

Watch out

• Never 喝少水 — the amount-word leads: 少喝水, 多吃饭.

多 before a verb means do more of it. Like its twin 少, it sits before the verb — exactly where English puts "more" after ("eat more" → 多吃).

Structure: 多 + Verb (+ Object)

more多duōeat吃chīa bit点diǎn。

Eat a bit more.

grandpa爷爷yé yeyou，你nǐshould要yàomore多duōgo out出去chū qùfor walks走走zǒu zou。

Grandpa, you should go out for walks more.

Remember: "eat more" flips to "more-eat" (多吃). 多 and 少 both lead the verb — that front position is the whole trick, and it's the opposite of English.

Watch out

• It's the mirror of 少 — both are everyday advice words (多喝水, 少熬夜).

由 spotlights who is responsible for an action — "(it's) for X to do, handled by X." It's at home in formal and business contexts.

Structure: Topic + 由 + Person + Verb

this这zhè件jiànmatter事shì由yóume我wǒis handled by负责fù zé。

I'm responsible for this matter.

this这个zhè geproject项目xiàng mùby由yóuXiao Li小李Xiǎo Lǐ来láito be done完成wán chéng。

This project is to be done by Xiao Li.

Remember: 由 X = "it's X's to handle." It assigns the doer or the responsibility — 这事由我负责 ("I'll take care of it"), 由你做主 ("it's your call"). Formal in tone.

Watch out

• Don't confuse it with the passive 被 — 由 assigns responsibility, not "suffered by."

并且 joins verb phrases or clauses — "and, moreover." Plain, it just means "and" (like 并); with 也 / 还 it means "moreover," pushing the first idea a step further.

Structure: VP1 + 并且 + VP2 · VP1 + 并且 + 也 / 还 + VP2

this这个zhè gemethod方法fāng fǎsimple简单jiǎn dānand also，并且bìng qiěeffective有效yǒu xiào。

This method is simple, and effective too.

I我wǒtold通知tōng zhī了leeveryone所有人suǒ yǒu rénmoreover，并且bìng qiěalso还háiprepared准备zhǔn bèi了lethe materials材料cái liào。

I told everyone, and moreover prepared the materials.

Remember: 并且 = "and (what's more)." With 也 / 还 it escalates ("moreover, on top of that"). It's the more written cousin of 而且.

Watch out

• In the 并且…也/还 escalation, you can't shrink it to a bare 并.

从来 with a negative means "never" — and the choice of negative matters. 从来 + 不 = "never (as a rule, by habit)"; 从来 + 没(有) + Verb + 过 = "have never (done it in my life)." In speech both shorten to 从.

Structure: Subject + 从来 + 不 + VP · Subject + 从来 + 没(有) + Verb + 过

she她tānever从来cóng lái不bùdrinks喝酒hē jiǔ。

She never drinks.

she她tānever从来cóng láihas没méimet见jiàn过guoher她tāmother妈妈mā ma。

She has never met her mother.

Remember: 从来不 = "never (habit/rule)"; 从来没…过 = "never (in experience)," with the experiential 过. Habit → 不; lifetime experience → 没…过. Both can shrink to 从不 / 从没.

Watch out

• Don't drop the 过 in the experience version: 从来没见过 ✓, not 从来没见.

值得 says an action is worth doing — it goes before a verb. Keep it apart from money: 值得 is about whether doing something pays off; for cash value you want plain 值.

Structure: (Subject +) 值得 + Verb

this这个zhè geidea想法xiǎng fǎworth值得zhí deconsidering考虑kǎo lǜ。

This idea is worth considering.

this这zhè本běnbook书shūwell很hěnworth值得zhí dea read一看yí kàn。

This book is well worth a read.

Remember: 值得 = worth DOING (an action); 值 = worth MONEY. 值得一看 ("worth a look"), 值得学习 ("worth learning from") — but 这个值一百块 ("this is worth 100 kuai").

Watch out

• Follow 值得 with a verb, not a price — for price, use 值.

到 after a verb, plus a time or event, works like "until." It often takes 一直 to stress the unbroken stretch. The structural catch: when the verb has an object, you repeat the verb.

Structure: (一直 +) Verb + 到 + Time / Event · Verb + Obj + Verb + 到 + Time

we我们wǒ menat在zàithe bar酒吧jiǔ bāright一直yì zhíchatted聊liáountil到dàomidnight半夜bàn yè。

We chatted at the bar until midnight.

she她tādid写xiěhomework作业zuò yèuntil写xiě到dào12:30十二点半shí èr diǎn bàn。

She did homework until 12:30.

Remember: with an object, repeat the verb: 写作业写到十二点 (do-homework, do-until-12). A bare 写作业到… is wrong. 一直…到 underlines that the action ran the whole way to that point.

Watch out

• The repeated-verb rule trips everyone — say the verb once for the object, once for the 到 + time.

害得 (or just 害) pins the blame on something for a bad outcome — "(it) caused / led to (something bad) for me." There's always a note of complaint, and the cause comes before 害得.

Structure: Reason ，害(得) + Undesirable Situation

in the afternoon下午xià wǔdrank喝hē了letwo两liǎng杯bēicoffees咖啡kā fēiwhich kept，害得hài deme我wǒat night晚上wǎn shangfrom sleeping睡不着shuì bu zháo。

I had two coffees, which kept me from sleeping at night.

you你nǐmade害得hài deus我们wǒ menall都dōulate迟到chí dào了le。

You made us all late.

Remember: 害 = "harm," so 害得 always blames — "…which (annoyingly) made me…." Reserve it for bad results; the 得 can drop (害我迟到了).

Watch out

• Never use it for a good outcome — for a neutral "make/cause," use 让 / 使.

A surprising number of "verbs" are secretly verb + object pairs — 见面 ("meet" = see-face), 睡觉 ("sleep" = sleep-a-sleep), 帮忙 ("help" = do-a-favour), 结婚 ("marry" = tie-marriage). Other words slot between the two halves, and you can't add another object after the whole word.

Structure: Verb + (insert) + Object

we我们wǒ menhave met见jiàn过guo面miàn。